
HI QT/IP' 
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SECOND 
BOOK 



REVISED AND ENIMGED 



SPECIAL EDITIO 



PERKY AND PMC'E 




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COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



AMERICAN HISTORY 

SECOND BOOK 

(1783 TO THE Present Time) 



BY 

ARTHUR C. PERRY, Jr., Ph.D. 

DISTRICT SUPERINTENDENT OF SCHOOLS 
NEW YORK CITY 

AND 

GERTRUDE A. PRICE 

TEACHER IN PUBLIC SCHOOL 
NEW YORK CITY 

REVISED AND ENLARGED 
SPECIAL EDITION 




AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

NEW YORK CINCINNATI CHICAGO 

BOSTON ATLANTA 



^^75 



Copyright, 1914, 1 919, by 
Arthur C. Perry, Jr., and Gertrude A. Price 



Copyright, 1914, in Great Britain 



Am. Hist. Second Book. Rev. & Enl. Sp. Ed. 
w. p. I 



OCI -8 1B!9 



©CI.A585i91 



PREFACE 

The general practice of our elementary schools is 
to study the subject of American History in two 
cycles. This volume is the second of a two-book 
series intended to serve as textbooks for pupils in 
the first cycle of their study, and to cover two years* 
work. Each book, however, is so planned that it 
can be used independently of the other. 

The books aim to introduce the pupil to the history 
of his country in accordance with accepted pedagogi- 
cal method. It is not their purpose to give the 
student a detailed and comprehensive study of the 
philosophy of history, or to appeal especially to the 
judgment and those other faculties whose fuller 
development comes with adolescence. The books are 
deliberately organized, as regards both subject matter 
and vocabulary, on lines of adaptability to children 
of ten or tw^elve years of age. 

The interest of the child must be aroused — and 
his interest at this age is not in the philosophy of 
cause and effect. His interest is in the drama of 
events rather than in their causal sequence: it is in 
adventure, not politics; in heroism, not statesman- 
ship; in deeds, not philosophy; in people, not sta- 
tistics. Later in his school career he may turn toward 



IV PREFACE 

the technical and philosophical phases of the sub- 
ject; but to arouse his present enthusiasm we must 
appeal to his immediate interests, and these are ele- 
mental, simple, almost barbaric. 

Hence these books attempt to enlist the interest 
of the pupil in the stirring narrative of our country's 
progress, and to give him such narrative in plenty. 
That the tastes of the pupil at this age are of an 
elemental quality is not a reason for reducing the 
subject matter in quantity. Therefore, it has not 
been the aim of the authors to write a "brief" book. 

The arrangement of the subject matter is on a 
three-fold plan. Each chapter has a central thought 
about which important events are grouped in narra- 
tive form. Following the narrative there is a sum- 
mary for careful study; and then comes a concise 
statement of the fact or facts that seem most vital. 
It is suggested that in using this volume as a text- 
book, the pupil read the narrative, study the sum- 
mary, and memorize the facts. 

For convenience in review study, the facts to be 
memorized are brought together in one series in an 
appendix. ' Whether the student is obliged to leave 
school without further formal study of history, or 
whether he is privileged to continue his schooling 
through the second-cycle study of the subject, this 
series of facts, thoroughly memorized, will serve as 
a background and setting for all his future study of 
history^ civics, and politics. To this skeleton resume 



PREFACE V 

he may refer all the events of history, placing them 
properly both as to chronological order and as to 
causal relations. 

Other appendixes contain reference material for the 
teacher's use. The pronunciation of difficult words 
is indicated in the Index. 

The selection from "Uncle Remus," by Joel Chand- 
ler Harris, on page 82, is used by permission of the 
publishers, D. Appleton and Company. The selec- 
tion from '' The High Tide at Gettysburg," on page 
156, is used through the courtesy of the author. Will 
Henry Thompson. The verses on ''America," page 
257, are reprinted by permission from *' The Poems 
of Henry Van Dyke," published by Charles Scribner's 
Sons. 



CONTENTS 

CHAPTER ^^^= 

I. The Uniting of the States i 

II. Democracy ^5 

III. Progress and Invention 5i 

IV. Slavery 77 

V. Secession ^9 

VI. The Civil War ^ ^5 

VII. The Turning of the Tide i39 

VIII. Reconstruction ^59 

IX. The Great West ^77 

X. Spanish War 205 

XI. Expansion ^^3 

XII. Life of To-day 237 

XIII. Recalling the Past 259 

XIV. The World War 279 

Appendix A. Facts to be Memorized 3^3 

Appendix B. Reference Table of the States 307 

Appendix C. Reference Table of Presidents and Vice 

Presidents 3°*^ 

Appendix D. Reference List of Important Events in 

Chronological Order 3^9 

Appendix E. Constitution of the United States 3^3 

Index 333 



AMERICAN HISTORY 

CHAPTER I 

THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

"With a heart full of love and gratitude I now take 
my leave of you, most devoutly wishing that your 
latter days may be as prosperous and happy as your 
former ones have been glorious and honorable." 
Thus, with shaking voice, spoke the great general as 
he bade farewell to the officers of his army. One 
after another they clasped his hand in silent devo- 
tion. It was he who had guided them so faithfully 
through eight long years of war. It was he who had 
led them to the final victory. For this was Wash- 
ington, the commander in chief of the Continental 
army. 

This was Washington, who, when scarcely more 
than a boy, was known throughout the Virginia col- 
ony as a skillful public surveyor. Day 

r 11- 1 1 1 • • 1 Washington 

after day his work took him into the 

forest, where he learned much of woodcraft, and 
where he learned to know the Indians and their 
ways. He it was that the governor sent into the 



2 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

Ohio country, in 1753, to warn the French not to 
trespass on EngHsh territory. Then, two years later, 
when soldiers were sent against the French and their 
Indian allies, Washington was made first aid to Brad- 
dock, the English general. After Braddock was de- 
feated, it was Washington, with his knowledge of 
the woods and the Indian methods of warfare, who 
led the English retreat. 

This was Washington, who, in 1775, had been made 
commander in chief of the American army that gath- 
ered to defend the colonies against the mother coun- 
try. He directed it in its campaign about New York 
and across New Jersey. With his ragged troops, he 
braved the Delaware in midwinter and captured 
Trenton. He worked out the plan that led to Bur- 
goyne's surrender. He suffered with his heroic sol- 
diers at Valley Forge. He forced the surrender of 
Cornwallis at Yorktown. A leading historian says, 
" It is very doubtful if without Washington the strug- 
gle for independence would have succeeded as it did. 
Other men were important; he was indispensable." 

i\nd now, in December, 1783, the officers of the 
army had gathered in the city of New York to ex- 
change their last farewells, for their ser- 
vices were no longer needed. A treaty 
of peace had been signed at Paris in Sep- 
tember, and in November the last of the British 
troops had left the city. The meeting was held in 
Fraunces' Tavern, in those days a favorite place for 



GEORGE WASHINGTON 



public gatherings, and to-day preserved as one of 
the precious reUcs of bygone colonial times. After 
the good-bys had been said, the officers left for their 
homes, some to go to New England, some to go 
south, some for near-by New Jersey or New York. 




m 



Fraunces' Tavern in 1783 

Washington presented himself to Congress and re- 
signed his office, saying, ''I here offer my commis- 
sion, and take my leave of all the employments of 
public life." He then journeyed on to Mount Vernon, 
his quiet plantation home on" the west bank of the 
Potomac. 

By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, which closed the 
American Revolution, the United States was awarded 
a territory larger than the combined area of the 
present countries of France, Spain, Great Britain, 



4 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

and Germany. It might be supposed that the new 
Ship of State thus launched would have fair weather 

and smooth sailing. On the contrary, 
^^^ ^ the following five or six years of our 

history have been called the Critical 
Period, and we do not have to look far to see the 
reason. 

In the first place, the very size of the country made 
it difficult to build up a strong nation. Hundreds of 

miles separate the states of Massachu- 

^ ^ . setts and Georgia, and those hundreds 

to union ^ ° 

of miles meant far more in those days 
than they do now. Even the trip from Boston to 
New York was a great undertaking. It is now made 
daily by thousands of people, and requires but five or 
six hours. In colonial days one had to spend a week 
on a trying and dangerous journey by coach. So it 
is not strange that the people of Massachusetts did 
not feel very closely related to the people of Georgia, 
or even to those of the states nearer by. 

The colonists were separated not only by distance, 
but also by differences in religion and traditions 
and ways of living. While they were fighting side 
by side against England, they had forgotten these 
differences. But now that war was over and their 
independence recognized, most of the people naturally 
fell back into their old ways of looking at things. 
That is, the people of Virginia thought of themselves 
as Virginians, those of Pennsylvania as Pennsylva- 



THE WESTERN LANDS 5 

nians, and so on ; few of them found it easy to think 
of themselves as all belonging to one country. 

In fact, people were giving most of their attention 
to recovering from the effects of the war. They 
wanted to lead peaceful lives and attend to their 
business in shop or field. They paid taxes to their 
state government, and most of them cared little about 
the central government with headquarters at far-off 
Philadelphia. 

But there was one matter in particular that helped 
to make people think of themselves as a united 
nation. This concerned the ownership of the western 
lands. The union of the states made it necessary to 
settle a dispute of long standing. Some of the states 
claimed that their original charters had given them 
everything ''from sea to sea." When they began to 
extend their boundaries to the Mississippi there was 
great confusion. The lines conflicted, and it was 
hard to decide which were right. The other states 
which, as colonies, had had no western lands, now 
claimed a share in them. They argued that they 
had done their part in the Revolution and so had 
helped to gain the independence of all the territory 
belonging to the states. 

The matter was settled peaceably. The states, 
one after another, yielded to Congress 
their claims to most of the land in ques- ^ i^^nce o 
tion. The part north of the Ohio River 
became known as the Northwest Territory. Congress 



6 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

proceeded to make a law for its government, called 
the "Ordinance of 1787." This law was important 
for several reasons. One of its provisions was that, 
when the population became large enough, the people 
might elect a legislature to make their laws. Another 
prohibited slavery forever in all parts of the North- 
west Territory. 

As this and other problems pressed for solution, the 
leaders saw that if America was ever to become a 
powerful nation there must be a change in the form 
of its government. For the years preceding, the states 
had kept together under an agreement called the Ar- 
ticles of Confederation. It was under these Articles 
that Congress had carried on the war for independence. 

The Articles of Confederation, useful as they were, 
had many serious defects. All the states sent dele- 
gates to Congress, but when a vote was 

Articles of ^ , i. . . 

^ ^ J ,. taken on any measure each state was 

Confederation ■' 

allowed only one vote, no matter how 
many delegates it might have. 

Again, Congress had no power to enforce its own 
laws, and there was no single head like a king or a 
president who could enforce the laws. Worst of all. 
Congress had no power to get money by means of 
taxes. Congress had full power to declare and wage 
war, but this was not enough. Warfare is costly. 
It is one thing to say, " We are now at war." It is 
quite another thing to raise the money with which to 
carry on the war, for soldiers must be paid and ammu- 



THE FEDERAL CONVENTION 7 

nition and supplies must be bought. Congress could 
borrow money, and did borrow a great deal. It could 
also call upon the different states to pay their share of 
the expenses, but it had no way of compelling them to 
pay if they declined. The result was that the states 
were slow in contributing funds. Each one made the 
tardiness of its neighbors its own excuse for delay. 

This was only one of the weak points of the gov- 
ernment. There were many others. Matters kept 
going from bad to worse. The states quarreled among 
themselves and with Congress. At last it was seen that 
something must be done to patch up the weak Articles 
of Confederation. So Congress asked all the states 
to send delegates to a convention for this purpose. 
In May, 1787, the Federal Convention met at Phila- 
delphia, with delegates from every state except Rhode 
Island. 

Fortunately for the future of the nation, there 
were among these delegates some of the foremost 
patriots of America. All of them are 
deserving of grateful remembrance, but 
we can speak of only a few of the 
leaders. One figure stood out above all the others; 
this was Washington, who had once more answered 
the call of his country and had come from his com- 
fortable Virginia home to take his part in solving the 
problems of the nation. It already owed him much 
as a soldier. It came to owe him yet more as a wise 
and guiding statesman. 



8 



THE UNITING OF THE STATES 



Indeed, Washington had already shown his patriot- 
ism in many acts of statesmanship. There had been a 
time, just at the close of the war, when the officers of 
his army, disgusted with the government, suggested 
that Washington be made king. Had he accepted 
this suggestion it is very likely that our country 
would have been doomed to a military government. 
But the noble character of Washington resented the 
idea, and he convinced his officers that they were 
wrong. And now once more he was to lead his 
countrymen in the paths of peace. When the con- 
vention came together Washington 
was promptly chosen its chairman. 
Another famous member was 
Benjamin Franklin, the well-known 
Philadelphia printer, the coiner of 
clever sayings, the maker of many in- 
ventions, and our genial ambassador 
to France. A prominent Frenchman 
said of him, ''He snatched the 
thunderbolt from the sky and the 
scepter from the tyrants." Franklin 
was one of the three men who rep- 
resented America in drawing up 
sJl^^Frankiinat'the thc Treaty of Paris. He had now 
World's Fair in 1893 rctumcd to his native land for the 
last time and, although far advanced in years and in 
service to his country, he inspired the others by his 
very presence. 




THE FEDERAL CONVENTION 9 

One of the delegates from New York was Alex- 
ander Hamilton. He was born in the West Indies, 
but came to Boston when yet a boy. He was only 
eighteen when the Revolution began, but he was 




Hamilton's tomb, in New York 

soon given command of a company of artillery that 
saw exciting service. Before long he was placed on 
Washington's stafif. He was a cool, dashing soldier, 
but he was to gain greater honors in time of peace 
than he had on the field of battle. Small in stature, 
keen of intellect, a scholar and an orator, Hamilton 
soon became a leader on the floor of the convention. 
Another member was James Madison, a Virginian. 
He had not fought in the field, but through the trying 
years of the war had faithfully served as a member 
of the legislature of his state and of the Federal Con- 



lO THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

gress. Not only was he an active worker in the con- 
vention, but he rendered a service of particular value. 
The sessions were held in secrecy, and no outsider 
knew what was going on from day to day. But 
Madison kept a journal of all the proceedings, and 
it is from this record, published some fifty years 
later, that we learn most about what took place. 

When the delegates had been called together it was 

understood that their business was to propose changes 

in the Articles of Confederation. They 

^^ ^ soon realized, however, that these Articles 
constitution 

were so very unsatisfactory that it would 
be a waste of time to try to patch them up. It would 
be far better to begin all over again and make an 
entirely new agreement. So they set about to write 
a constitution. 

There were all sorts of opinions as to what should 
be done. The first question was: Shall we create a 
powerful central government, or shall we continue 
as a confederation of independent states? Wash- 
ington and Hamilton, with many other delegates, 
were in favor of bringing about a strong union. 
Against them were others, no less patriotic, who be- 
lieved it wiser that the states should remain important 
and powerful. They would keep the confederation, 
however, so that the states would be prepared to 
work together in time of trouble. 

Then there were jealousies between the larger states 
and the smaller ones. Those which had many people 



THE CONSTITUTION il 

naturally felt that they should have more control in 
the government than those with fewer people. But 
the small states maintained that each of them was just 
as much an independent nation as any of the larger 
ones. Hence they claimed equal influence for all states. 

There were also several other matters of difference. 
Clearly only one solution was possible, that of com- 
promise. All the delegates must be patient. All 
must keep their tempers. It might be possible, in 
regard to each question, to hit upon some middle 
course which, although it could not satisfy every- 
body, would be accepted because it was far better 
than nothing. And so the convention labored for 
several weeks. 

At last, the spirit of compromise settled every im- 
portant matter. When the Constitution was finished 
it was at once seen to be a very great 

improvement over the Articles of Con- , ^ "^^ ^ ^^ 
^ ^ ^ of government 

federation. The chief gain was that the 
three different powers of government were distinctly 
separated. These three powers are known as the 
legislative, the executive, and the judicial. 

The making of the laws — the legislative power — 
was put in the hands of a new Congress, which was em- 
powered to levy taxes. This Congress was to be com- 
posed not of one house, as formerly, but of two — the 
Senate and the House of Representatives. Each 
state sends two senators; but in the House the num- 
ber of representatives from each state depends upon its 



12 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

population. This was the compromise that brought 
together the large and the small states. 

The executive power was vested in a President, 
who was to see that the laws made by Congress were 
properly enforced. 

The judicial power was given to a Supreme Court 
and to lower courts. The business of the courts is 
to decide what the laws mean and to settle disputes 
between parties who go to law. 

Thus the three powers of government were sepa- 
rated. But it was all so skillfully arranged that each 
branch is a check upon the others. For instance, the 
President can check Congress in its lawmaking by 
vetoing its bills. Again, the President must have 
the consent of the Senate when he appoints judges. 
Again, Congress establishes and abolishes lower 
courts. In these and in many other ways the three 
branches depend one upon another. 

It was provided by the Constitution that as soon 
as nine states should accept it, they should begin to 
'Pljg live under its provisions. On June 21, 

Constitution 1 788, New Hampshire, the ninth state, 
ratified ratified the Constitution and it went into 

effect. Before long, the other four states came in, one 
by one, although the last, little Rhode Island, held off 
for nearly two years. Most of the states, however, 
accepted the Constitution only with the understand- 
ing that it was to be changed in certain important 
respects. They wanted the rights of the people made 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 



13 



still clearer. Accordingly, soon after the new gov- 
ernment got under way, ten amendments were added 
to the Constitution. 

Under the new Constitution certain officers were to 
be elected. Able men were chosen as members of 
Congress. For President there could be Washington 
but one choice. All looked to Washing- the first 
ton to guide the new nation, and he was P^^^ident 
elected without any opposition whatever. For Vice 
President, John Adams of Massachusetts was chosen. 
He was a statesman who had played an important 
part in the Revolution, and had been minister to the 
English court. 




Washington's home, at Mount Vernon, Virginia 

The news of Washington's election was brought to 
him at Mount Vernon, his quiet plantation home on 



14 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

the Potomac. Soon afterward he set out on the long 
journey to New York, then the capital. All along the 
route the people turned out in force to welcome their 
beloved leader and to wish him godspeed in the work 
of his new office. The ovation reached its height in 
the cities of Philadelphia and Trenton. Here elabo- 
rate arches had been erected. Under these Washing- 
ton rode, a conquering hero of war and peace. As he 
passed under the Philadelphia arch a laurel wreath 
was lowered upon his head. It was a modest crown, 
but as stately as any worn by royal ruler. 

At the Trenton arch the President-elect was es- 
corted by schoolgirls, dressed in white, who strewed 
his path with blossoms and sang an ode in his honor. 
Two days later he reached New York Bay. This he 
crossed on a handsome barge which had been built 
for the memorable occasion. As the boat neared the 
Battery, and as Washington and his escort landed 
and were met by Governor Clinton, cannon boomed, 
flags waved, and the dense crowd of people cheered in 
hearty welcome. In a week's time all preparations for 
the inauguration had been completed. Standing on 
the balcony of Federal Hall, in the city of New York, 
Washington took the oath of office, pledging himself 
to "preserve, protect, and defend the Constitution of 
the United States." 

Notwithstanding the glory of his inauguration and 
the hearty good will which the people throughout the 
country bore him, it was a heavy task that lay 



THE FIRST PRESIDENT 15 

before our first President. Very perplexing problems, 

both at home and abroad, had to be solved by the 

/7 ^ Q United States before it could 

J^^7i2/-itJ^^ '^^"y ""^ '^^"'':^ ^ successful 
^ '^ /y ^^ nation. Washington selected 

Washington's autograph r ^i r ^ r 

some 01 the loremost men 01 
the time to aid him in his work. 

One of the first things to be attended to was the 
census. Each state was to send to Congress a num- 
ber of representatives in proportion to its 

population. The Constitution provides 

^ ^ ^ census 

that, once every ten years, all the people 
in all the states shall be counted. Accordingly, the 
first census was taken in 1790, and the count showed 
the population of the entire country to be 3,929,214. 
By the thirteenth census, taken in 1910, the popula- 
tion of the United States, including its possessions, 
numbered more than 100,000,000. Thus the nation 
has increased more than twenty-fold in a little over 
a century. This is to be explained partly by the 
wonderful geography of the country and the oppor- 
tunities thus afforded. It is in part, too, owing to 
the genius of the American people. But much is due 
to the right beginning which was made through the 
wisdom of the patriot fathers. 

Another question that was settled early in Wash- 
ington's administration was the location 

r 1 -1 -IT -i-rr ^ ^he Capital 

ot the national capital. It was dimcult 

to decide on a place that would be acceptable to every 



i6 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

one. After considerable debate it was agreed to 
make Philadelphia the capital for ten years. After 
that the capital was to be on a site on the Potomac 
River. A tract of land ten miles square was selected, 
and within this district the city of Washington was 
founded. Washington has remained the capital of 
our country ever since the year 1800. 

But by far the most difficult home problems were 
those relating to money matters. Washington had 

chosen Alexander Hamilton to be Secre- 
, ^^" ^ tary of the Treasury. Hamilton did his 

work with remarkable wisdom. He found 
finances in a woeful condition. The Continental Con- 
gress had borrowed much money with which to carry 
on the war. Some of it had been loaned by France, 
some by Spain, some by Holland. When Hamilton 
took charge he found that the debt had reached a total 
of millions of dollars. There were some people who 
thought that the new government need not concern 
itself about old debts. But Hamilton knew better. 
Through his efforts with Congress, arrangements were 
made to repay the money. 

Hamilton shrewdly proposed that most of the 
money needed by the new government be raised by 

indirect taxation ; that is, by some method 
tariff law whereby the people do not directly pay 

money to a tax collector. So Congress 
passed a tariff law, taxing goods made in foreign 
countries and brought here for sale. As a result 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 



17 



people had to pay a little more for imported articles. 
With the help of this tax the government was able 
to meet its running expenses, and also slowly to pay 
off its debts. Thus, under the wise guidance of Alex- 




Building in Philadelphia occupied by the first mint 



ander Hamilton, our government began its policy of 
strict honesty in money matters. 

At about this time, too, a mint was built. Here the 
United States began making its own coins, of gold 
and silver and copper, based on a new system of 
dollars and cents. This replaced the English pounds, 
shillings, and pence used in colonial days. 



1 8 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

But it was not alone home problems that the 
officers of our government had to meet. Our rela- 
tions with foreign countries were anything 
oreign ^^^ satisfactory. England naturally was 

looking for any pretext by which she 
might embarrass the people who had dared to throw 
off her authority. Spain, our neighbor on the south 
and west, had hopes of encroaching upon the territory 
of the weak new nation and increasing her own posses- 
sions in America. France, our friend of Revolu- 
tionary times, expected us to side with her in her 
troubles with the other European nations. 

There were many Americans who thought that we 
should go to any length to resent the actions of Eng- 
land and Spain and to befriend France. Washington, 
however, with his rare w^isdom, kept our weak and 
struggling country out of war. Said he, ''My policy 
has been and will continue to be, while I have the 
honor to remain in the administration, to maintain 
friendly terms with, but to be independent of, all 
the nations of the earth; to share in the broils of 
none; to fulfill our own engagements; to supply the 
wants and be the carriers for them all; being thor- 
oughly convinced that it is our policy and interest to 
do so." 

With all these questions coming before the people, 
it is easy to realize that there must have been many 
honest differences of opinion among them. Some 
sided with Hamilton and the other statesmen who 



POLITICAL PARTIES 



19 



were Intent on building up a strong central power. 
These called themselves Federalists. Those who op- 
posed them followed the leadership of Beginning of 
Thomas Jefferson, the author of the Dec- political 
laration of Independence and now Secre- P^^*^®^ 
tary of State. Thus there began to be political 
parties in the United States, a condition that is very 
familiar to us of to-day, and which in many ways 
has been very fortunate. A government is sure to 
be better managed if there are strong political parties 
each closely watching the actions of the others. 




Washington's tomb, at Mount Vernon 



After much discussion, the term of the President of 
the United States had been fixed in the Constitution 
at four years. At the end of Washington's term, he 
was unanimously reelected. Four years later he re- 
fused to be considered for reelection. He retired once 
more to private life at his quiet home on the Potomac. 
Three years later he died, deeply mourned by the 



20 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

millions of his compatriots, who lovingly termed him 

the Father of his Country. 

Washington's refusal to accept a third term gave 

the two parties a chance to put forward candidates 

for the presidency. The Federalists nom- 

, ^ , inated Vice-President Adams. The other 

elected 

nominee was Thomas Jefferson, the leader 
of the Democratic-Republicans, as the members of his 
party soon came to be called. The Federalists were 
a little the stronger, and John Adams became the 
second President of the United States. 

It was during Adams's presidency that the diffi- 
culty with France became acute. The government 

of France had been changed. It now 
., . , consisted of a group of five men called the 

Directory, who managed things with a 
high hand. They claimed that they had been mis- 
treated by the United States government because it 
had refused to aid them in their war with England. 
They even demanded that the American commis- 
sioners in France should pay them a bribe of several 
thousand dollars. To frighten the United States 
into a settlement, French cruisers began to interfere 
with American commerce. Feeling in this country 
ran high. The popular cry echoed the defiant words 
of Pinckney, one of the American commissioners to 
France: "Millions for defense; not one cent for 
tribute!" 

At this time were written the stirring words of 



DIFFICULTY WITH FRANCE 21 

"Hail Columbia," addressed to the Revolutionary 
heroes, "Heav'n born band! Who fought and bled 
in Freedom's cause," thus calling upon them: 

"Immortal patriots, rise once more! 
Defend your rights, defend your shore; 
Let no rude foe with impious hand 
Invade the shrine where sacred lies 
Of toil and blood the well-earned prize." * 

Throughout the country rang the thrilling words 
of this national song, set to the tune of the " President's 
March," music which had welcomed Washington on 
his triumphal inaugural journey. The nation set 
about building warships, the beginning of the Amer- 
ican navy. The French, after a few skirmishes at sea, 
realized that the United States was in earnest, and 
gladly made peace. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

In 1783 the United States started upon its career, 
acknowledged by all the world as an independent 
nation. There were many reasons why it should grow 
rapidly in strength. For one thing, it had an immense 
area and wonderful natural resources. It extended 
from Canada to Florida, and from the Atlantic Ocean 
to the Mississippi River. 

Boundary disputes among some of the states were 
soon settled by giving Congress control of the unoc- 

* Joseph Hopkinson. 



22 



THE UNITING OF THE STATES 




The United States in 1783 



cupied territory in the west. Part of the land was 
set off and called the Northwest Territory. Its gov- 
ernment was provided for by the Ordinance of 1787. 
Out of this territory there were formed, from time to 



THE NEW GOVERNMENT 



23 



time, five states: Ohio, Indiana, Illinois, Michigan, 
and Wisconsin. 

On the other hand, there were many dangers ahead 
and many problems to be solved if disaster was to be 







The Northwest Territory 



avoided. The Articles of Confederation, under which 
the nation was governed, were very unsatisfactory. 
The people proceeded to adopt a Constitution to take 
their place. The Constitution went into effect in 
1788, and the following year George Washington be- 
came the first President of the United States. 

During Washington's administration the chief 
events were: taking the first census; locating the 
capital at Philadelphia for ten years and then at 



24 THE UNITING OF THE STATES 

Washington; arranging to pay the national debt; 
passing the first tariff law; and keeping the country 
out of war with European nations. With the close 
of Washington's second term, political parties arose, 
and since that time Presidents have been elected only 
after party contests. 

The second President was John Adams, a Feder- 
alist. During his term the French were thwarted 
in their attempt to levy tribute on the United States. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

The many weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, under 
which the Union had been governed, led to the adoption of the 
Constitution in 1788. 

George Washington was inaugurated first President of the 
United States in 1789. 

Our national capitals have been New York, Philadelphia, 
Washington. 

Bibliography 

Adams. — Brooks: Historic Americans. 

Morris: Heroes of Progress in America. 

Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales from American History. 

Sparks: Men who made the Nation. 
Hamilton. — Bolton : Famous American Statesmen. 

Brooks: Historic Americans. 

Burton: Four American Patriots. 

Hemstreet: Story of Manhattan. 

Morris: Heroes of Progress in America. 

Sparks: Men who made the Nation. 
General. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 




With the flag of the Macedonian thrown about him 



CHAPTER II 

DEMOCRACY 

For twelve years the Federalist party, under 
Washington and Adams, had been in control of the 
government. During that time there had been a 
steady increase in the number of people who felt that 
the Federalists were wrong in their way of doing 
things. Many thought that our government was 
too extravagant and too aristocratic. They said 
that there was too much pomp and ceremony, as if the 
President thought of himself as a royal ruler. The 
people wanted their President to act as if he were 
one of the plain people, like themselves. 

When Adams's term drew to its close it was easy for 
Jefferson's party to overthrow the Federalists and 
elect their leader President. Thus, in 

1801, Thomas Jefferson became Presi- 1^ erson, 
** President 

dent, the first to be chosen by the Demo- 
cratic-Republican party. This party remained in 
power for forty years. 

When Jefferson was inaugurated he introduced 
several new ideas and customs. Instead of riding to 
the Capitol in a handsome coach, he walked there 
from his boarding house like any ordinary citizen. 

25 



26 



DEMOCRACY 



Jefiferson, like many other men of the time, was influ- 
enced by the manners and customs of the French. 




Monticello, Jefferson's home, in Virginia 

In the matter of dress, for example, the courtly knee- 
breeches and stockings were now replaced with long 
trousers. It is said that Jefferson even went so far 
as to receive the English minister, on an official visit, 
dressed in slippers and other negligee. This much 
disgusted the worthy Englishman, who regarded it as 
an insult to himself and his country. 

Whatever the new President's eccentricities, all 
the people knew that he was capable, and most of 
them were his enthusiastic admirers. During the 
eight years of his two terms he directed the govern- 
ment wisely and well. One event in particular stands 
out as the crowning result of his efforts and as one 
of the most important acts ever performed by any 
President. This was the purchase of the Louisiana 
Territory. 



THE LOUISIANA PURCHASE 27 

The close of the Revolution, we remember, found 

Spain in possession of the land west of the Mississippi 

River. This meant that as the American 

frontiersmen pushed their eager way west- , 

^ & ^ purchase 

ward and located along the east bank of 
the river, they became near neighbors of Spanish sub- 
jects. There would have been little trouble, perhaps, 
if Spain had owned only one side of the river all the 
way to the Gulf of Mexico, and the United States had 
owned the other. But for the last hundred miles of 
the river's course, Spain owned the land on both sides. 
Her territory included the growing city of New 
Orleans, which is on the east bank. 

The result was that the Americans, when taking 
their produce to the sea on river rafts, soon found 
themselves in foreign territory. It was only by the 
favor of Spain that they could land and do business 
at New Orleans or go through to the Gulf of Mexico. 
When, in 1800, Spain ceded this whole Louisiana 
Territory to France, matters were made much worse, 
to the American way of thinking. France was a 
stronger power than Spain, and so might become far 
more dangerous as a neighbor. Soon the news came 
that Americans could no longer trade at New Orleans. 
Our western settlers were much worried. Jefferson, 
sympathizing with them, determined to help them, if 
possible. He sent agents to see if some bargain could 
not be struck with France whereby the United States 
might gain that hundred miles on the east of the river. 



28 DEMOCRACY 

Jefferson went to market at a very fortunate time. 
Napoleon Bonaparte, then the ruler of France, was 
engaged in a struggle with most of the nations of 
Europe. Compared with what he hoped to gain 
near home, far-off Louisiana was not worth much to 
him. Moreover, he was afraid that England, with 
her near-by Canadian colony, might easily wrest 
Louisiana from him if it remained in his hands. Most 
convincing of all, he needed all the money he could 
raise toward the expense of his wars. So, when this 
opportunity came, he offered the whole of the Louisi- 
ana Territory, vastly more than we had asked for, at 
a price that to-day seems ridiculously low. Jeffer- 
son promptly accepted the offer, and Congress voted 
him the money. Napoleon got his price, $15,000,000; 
and we got, at less than three cents an acre, a tract 
of land larger than all of the territory of the United 
States as it then existed. 

There were, however, some people who grumbled 
and objected. What did we want of so much land, 
hundreds of miles away, and probably good for noth- 
ing, anyway? But the majority of the people sided 
with Jefferson. Every one realizes now that in making 
the purchase he showed shrewd foresight and earned 
the gratitude of all future generations of Americans. 

In the year following, in order to learn more about 
the land we had acquired, an exploring party of some 
thirty men was sent out. One of the remarkable 
things about this expedition was the fact that its 



LEWIS AND CLARK EXPEDITION 



29 



two leaders, Meriwether Lewis and William Clark, 
were in joint command, yet there is no record that they 
ever had a single disagreement through- Lewis and 
out the two and a half years that they were Clark Expedi- 
gone. Starting from St. Louis in May, ^^^^ 
1804, the party ascended the Missouri River, passing 
through a region never before traversed by white men. 
One tribe of Indians after another was met and 
conquered through friendship. The Indian chiefs 
were presented with gifts that delighted their fancy, 
and were told that they were now under the rule of 
Jefferson, the Great Father at Washington. When 
the headwaters of the Missouri w^ere reached, the 
party procured horses from the Indians. With these 
they crossed the divide of the Rocky Mountains, and 
passed beyond the limits of the Louisiana Territory. 




Branding iron used by Lewis 

At length they came to a tributary of the great Colum- 
bia River. Traveling down the valley of this river, 
they reached the Pacific. 



30 DEMOCRACY 

The expedition strengthened a claim that the 
United States had already laid to this far-off region, 
which was known as the Oregon Country. The claim 
was based upon the discoveries of Captain Robert 
Gray, who was the first to carry the American flag 
around the world. Some years before. Captain Gray 
had sailed up the great river of the region and had 
given it the name of his ship, the Columbia. 

The homeward journey of Lewis and Clark was 
begun in March, 1806. That they were not extrav- 
agantly equipped is shown by Captain Lewis's 
account. ''AH the small merchandise we possess 
might be tied up in a couple of handkerchiefs. The 
rest of our stock in trade consists of six blue robes, 
one scarlet ditto, five robes which we made out of 
our large United States flag, a few old clothes trimmed 
with ribbons, and one artillerist's uniform coat and 
hat, which probably Captain Clark will never wear 
again. We have to depend entirely upon this meager 
outfit for the purchase of such horses and provisions 
as it will be in our power to obtain — a scant depend- 
ence, for such a journey as is before us." But these 
were brave and hardy men, and in due time the expedi- 
tion reached civilization once more. Their accounts 
of their experiences are of absorbing interest to all 
Americans. 

While we were thus learning about the geography 
of our new possessions, we were also teaching some 
foreign people a much needed lesson. The northwest- 



WAR WITH TRIPOLI 



31 



War with 
Tripoli 



ern part of Africa, known as the Barbary States, was 
inhabited by tribes of desperate pirates. They were 
of the Mohammedan reUgion, and felt 
Httle respect for the rights of the Christian 
nations whose traders sailed the Medi- 
terranean. They would capture European trading 
vessels, and hold the sailors prisoners until ransomed. 
Powerful governments of Europe had meekly sub- 
mitted to this treatment and 
paid heavy tribute to these 
highwaymen. It was not sur- 
prising that the weak and dis- 
tant United States should have 
been considered easy prey. 
More than a million dollars had 
been contributed by the gov- 
ernment and by the churches of 
our country and paid out in ran- 
soms for our enslaved sailors. 

We were already laying the 
foundations of a conquering 
navy, and such a display of force 
was made that the governor of 
Tripoli was glad to agree to let us and our ships alone. 
The treaty was signed in 1805, and within a few years 
safety to American citizens was assured throughout 
the Barbary States. But before this date we had 
been carrying on a war with Tripoli for several 
years. 




A Tripolitan pirate 



32 DEMOCRACY 

Many thrilling adventures are recorded in the his- 
tory of those days. One of them had to do with the 
Decatur cutting out of the cruiser Philadelphia. 

and the This was done under the leadership of 

Philadelphia Stephen Decatur. It was called by a 
great English naval commander "the most bold and 
daring act of the age." The Philadelphia was a 
38-gun frigate which had served the Americans well 




Naval cannon 



until, chasing a Tripolitan cruiser along the shore, she 
ran upon an uncharted reef. Despite all that her 
valiant crew could do, she lay helpless, was captured 
by the enemy's gunboats, and was drawn into the 
harbor of Tripoli. Here she was refitted and lay in 
the inner part of the harbor, protected by the 
menacing guns of the surrounding forts and the 
fleet. 

Desperate measures were planned for the destruction 
of the captured vessel. Decatur was detailed to carry 
them out. He took a party of some eighty men on 
board the Intrepid, a small boat fitted with sails and 
long sweeps, called in Mediterranean waters a ketch. 
On a bright, balmy moonlight night, before a fresh 



WAR WITH TRIPOLI 33 

breeze, he sailed the Intrepid directly into the jaws 
of the harbor and up to the Philadelphia, which lay 
at anchor, fully manned, with her guns shotted and 
ready for action. The very boldness of the venture 
deceived the enemy. Decatur kept his men under 
cover. Pretending that he was a peaceful trader, 
he succeeded in approaching close to the ship before 
the Tripolitans took alarm. But suddenly the cry 
arose, "Americanos! Americanos!" 

There was not a moment to be lost if the daring 
Americans would escape being blown to pieces by 
the heavy guns of the Philadelphia. They scrambled 
quickly aboard the frigate and rushed the startled 
crew. Not a gun was fired, but the deadly cutlass 
and sword did terrific service. In less than ten 
minutes the Tripolitans had been driven overboard 
by the Americans, who then proceeded to act under a 
well-ordered plan which had been made in advance. 
Each man reached his appointed place, carrying com- 
bustibles, and touched the torch to them. All over 
the ship the fiery spears darted upward, and soon 
the Philadelphia was a mass of lurid flame. 

For a few moments the Tripolitans ashore and in 
the harbor were stunned by the wonderful suddenness 
of the attack. Recovering, as Decatur and his men 
leaped into the Intrepid, they flooded the harbor 
with shot and shell. Through this cone of fire the 
Intrepid, with its men at the sweeps, worked its way 
toward the open sea. Behind it, in the lengthening 



34 DEMOCRACY 

distance, glared the weird beauty of the blazing frig- 
ate. As by a miracle, the crew escaped without a sin- 
gle loss. Presently the Philadelphia's overheated guns 
belched their charge upon the very town she had been 
captured to defend. Finally, with a wild roar and 
a flare of flame, she blew up. The frigate Philadel- 
phia was no more. 

Tripoli was not the only foreign nation that inter- 
fered with American commerce. Far greater injuries 
came about in another way. England 

and France were at war. Each was 
commerce 

attacking the commerce of the other. 
England captured many French trading ships. 
France ordered all the nations that were friendly to 
her, to close their ports to English trading ships. 
The United States was gaining much of the trade 
that these two nations were losing. Our country was 
following the advice Washington had given years 
before, and was taking no sides in the European con- 
troversy. It had declared itself neutral. But pres- 
ently England forbade American ships to trade with 
France. Next, France said they should not trade 
with England. Each began to seize American ships 
that continued the forbidden trade. 

This was bad enough, but England went still 
Impressment further. Her expenses were so heavy that 
of American she was not paying her sailors as much 
seamen ^g ^^^ American sailors were getting. 

Life, too, was easier and happier on the American 






IMPRESSMENT 



35 



ships. Consequently many English sailors sought 
service on the vessels of the United States. For this 
reason England began to search the American vessels 
for deserters. She claimed that English-born sailors 
still belonged to her even if they had moved to our 
country and had been naturalized. 
She would capture these and ''im- 
press" them into her service; that is, 
force them to serve in her navy, as 
she often impressed her own Eng- 
lish sailors. We denied her right to 
search American vessels. 

One day in 1807 a British warship, 
the Leopard, met the American Ches- 
apeake, as the latter was preparing to 
enter New York harbor. The Eng- 
lish commander ordered the Amer- 
ican captain to surrender all deserters, 
but he declared there were none on board. Where- 
upon, the Leopard opened fire. The Chesapeake 
was unprepared for any such attack and was forced 
to surrender. 

American indignation was boundless. It was with 
difficulty that war was prevented at this time. But 
it was important that our country should avoid war 
if possible. It had little money in the treasury, it 
had hardly any navy, and its strength as an inde- 
pendent nation was still to be proved. Many thought 
that Great Britain was looking for a chance to whip 




American seaman in 
Jefferson's time 



36 DEMOCRACY 

the states back into submission. At any rate she and 
France were treating our country as if it were of no 
account. Both nations were swooping down upon 
American merchant ships and seizing them under 
pretext that they were bound for the enemy's ports. 
Thus carrying goods by sea was no longer safe. 

Some time before this, Jefferson had seen the danger 
of war. He had been very anxious to avoid it. He 
reaHzed that the country was in no condi- 
m argo ^.^^ ^^ fight. For this reason he had sug- 
gested what was known as the Embargo 
Act. This law forbade all American vessels to leave 
port. The idea w^as that if England and France 
would not let us trade peaceably with whom we 
wished, then we would stop trading entirely. But 
this plan hurt our country as much as it did England 
and France, the nations toward whom it was directed. 
The New Englanders particularly felt it. They went 
back to the old revolutionary practice of smuggling. 

Stricter laws were then passed to force the people 
to respect the federal government. Soon empty 
vessels wath furled sails choked the New England 
harbors. The wharves were deserted, and on the 
streets loitered idle, rebellious sailors and merchants. 
Discontent grew, until there were rumors that some 
states would withdraw^ from the Union. In 1809 the 
Embargo Act was repealed, and the Non-Intercourse 
Act took its place. This act permitted trade with all 
countries except France and England. 



WAR DECLARED 37 

Both those countries continued to seize our vessels 
in the most insulting fashion. Old friendship for 
France softened the feeling toward her. Equally, 
the old enmity toward England increased the Ameri- 
can sense of injustice. 

James Madison, who succeeded Jefferson as Presi- 
dent in 1809, was strongly opposed to war. His 

messages to Congress recommended peace 

, . ^, 1 I. "War declared 

and patience. 1 here were, however, few 

Congressmen left w^ho had personal memories of the 
Revolution, and even the President's party, the Dem- 
ocratic-Republicans, favored war. They were led by 
two fiery Southerners, Clay and Calhoun, whose im-. 
petuous fervor swept all before it. Not only would 
they make war upon England, but they would in- 
vade Canada and annex it to the United States. 
Older men shook their heads in disapproval, but the 
younger men had their way. On June 18, 1812, war 
w^as declared. 

The beginning of the war was marked by both 
successes and failures. It was easy to talk of the 
glory of conquering Canada, but Canada 
was not to be conquered by talk. In ^ 
July General William Hull left Detroit 
and invaded Canada. Along the line of advance he 
heard all sorts of stories about a large army of Cana- 
dians and Indians that was bearing down upon him. 
This false alarm scared Hull back to Detroit, where 
the enemy overtook him and forced him to surrender. 



38 DEMOCRACY 

The possession of Detroit carried with it the control 
of the upper Great Lakes, and of a large part of the 
Northwest Territory. 

On sea, however, there was reason for encourage- 
ment. The American navy was small, but a few of 
The career i^s ships were strong, seaworthy craft, 
of the Among these was the Constitutio7i. Its 

Constitution commander, Isaac Hull, was a seaman of 
ability. More than this, his men were remarkably 
well trained. It was said that if all the officers were 




The Constitution 



to leave the ship, the crew could manage it and fight 
just as well. Their faith in the good ship Constitution 
amounted almost to superstition — they believed she 
could not be beaten. However, in her first encounter 
with the English she ran away, but that was in order 
that she might "live to fight another day." 

This was how it happened. A fleet of English 
vessels overtook the Constitution on her way to New 
York. One ship, no matter how sturdy, or how brave 
her crew, has little chance against seven. Captain 



THE CONSTITUTION 39 

Hull saw this and determined to save his ship. The 
flight began with a great sweep of canvas, the English 
in full pursuit; but presently the wind died down. 
In those days the steam engine was unknown in ocean 
navigation, and ships were dependent upon their 
sails. But the American commander devised a clever 
way of escape. 

Finding the water quite shallow, Hull lowered a 
small boat and in it placed a heavy anchor, to 
which was attached a long cable. With the anchor 
the men rowed forward, paying out the line. After 
they had gone half a mile they dropped the anchor. 
Then those on board the Constitution wound up the 
cable, thus pulling their ship forward. Before she 
had ceased moving, a second anchor was ready, 
dropped, and wound up in its turn. After a while 
the wind sprang up again. The race continued all 
day and all night, but by the following morning the 
British saw that the chase was useless and gave it up. 
Hull made for Boston harbor. There he could con- 
tradict the story that had gone forth that he had 
surrendered. 

Within a month Hull was near Newfoundland. 
Here he met one of the vessels of the fleet that had 
given him chase. It was a well-built British frigate, 
only a little less powerful than the Constitution, Its 
mainsail bore in large red letters 

" All who meet me have a care 
I am England's Guerrihre.''' 



40 



DEMOCRACY 



When the order was given to prepare for action, Hull 
says of his crew, ''From the smallest boy to the oldest 
seaman, not a look of fear was seen." It was not 
until the vessels were within fifty yards of each other 
that the order to fire was given. Blast after blast 
rent the air and made the big ships quiver. On each 
the colors were shot down. On each gallant hands 
sprang forward and nailed the flag to the mast. 
Fast and furious was the fighting. The Guerriere, 
however, was getting the worst of it. Several shots 
which she had directed toward the body of the Con- 
stitution bounded back into the water. "Her sides 
are like iron," her sailors cried. "Hurrah for Old 
Ironsides!" they shouted, and by this name the Con- 
stitution came to be known. Presently the Guerriere 
was rendered helpless. Powerless to respond to the 
volleys from her foe, she surrendered. The glory of 




Medal commemorating the Constitutloa's victory 



the victory lay in the fairness of the fight, and in the 
gallantry of the captains and crews of both ships. 



OTHER NAVAL MCTORIES 41 

The whole country was filled with joy over this, 
the first great naval victory of the young nation. A 
medal was struck off in honor of it, swords were given 
to the Constitution' s officers, and prize money was 
awarded the crew. 

Then followed a series of successes. One of them 
brought us a famous prize. The United States, under 
the command of Decatur, the hero of 
Tripoli, met the English Macedonian near 
the Madeira Islands. An hour of hard 
fighting followed. At the end the Macedonian hauled 
down her flag. This was a valuable capture, for the 
ship was new. After some repairing, she floated the 
American flag from her mast. The messenger Decatur 
sent to Washington with the news of victory was a 
young officer who had shown unusual bravery during 
the struggle. Upon his arrival the youth found that 
nearly all the important persons had gone to a ball. 
Thither he too went, and entered the ballroom with 
the flag of the Macedonian thrown about him. Almost 
instantly the people recognized its meaning. The 
men went wild with joy. They lifted the messenger 
upon their shoulders and bore him about the room, 
cheering as they went. At the close of the war the 
Macedonian was sent to Annapolis, where she helped 
to fire the enthusiasm of America's young sailors. 

The British felt this and their other defeats very 
keenly. The London Times voiced their alarm in 
the following language: "Upward of five hundred 



42 DEMOCRACY 

British vessels captured in seven months by the 
Americans. Five hundred merchantmen and three 
frigates! Can these statements be true? And can 
the EngHsh people hear them unmoved? Any one 
who would have predicted such a result of an American 
war this time last year would have been treated as a 
madman or a traitor. He would have been told, if 
his opponents had condescended to argue with him, 
that long ere seven months had elapsed the American 
flag would have been swept from the seas, the con- 
temptible navy of the United States annihilated, and 
their marine arsenals reduced to a heap of ruins. 
Yet down to this moment not a single American 
frigate has struck her flag. " 

The English navy far exceeded ours in strength and 
number of vessels, but most of it was busy in the 

war with France, which was going on at 
Naval defeats • r\ i i • 

the same time. Our successes had m- 

spired hope in the hearts of the people. But defeat 

followed fast in the wake of victory. The turn in 

the tide began with the disaster to the Chesapeake. 

Under command of Captain Lawrence she encountered 

the English Shannon outside of Boston harbor. The 

enemy worked terrible destruction in a short time. 

Three men were shot down from the wheel. The 

first lieutenant was mortally wounded. Lawrence, 

in his brilliant uniform, made a sure target. Twice 

was he shot. As he was dying, he cried out, "Tell 

the men to fight faster. Don't give up the ship." 



NAVAL DEFEATS 43 

The remaining officers fought gallantly, but without 
avail. The Chesapeake was forced to surrender. 

Lawrence was given a naval funeral. He was 
wrapped in the flag of the Chesapeake, and his sword 
was placed on the coffin. In attendance were Ameri- 
can and British officers alike, together with many 
wounded from the crews of both ships. His body 
rests in Trinity Churchyard, New York. 

The hope of the /\mericans was badly shattered. 
Before the close of the year 1813, the British had sent 
over vessels enough to drive our navy from the sea 
and to blockade practically our entire seacoast. The 
United States was a long way from victory. The 
most pressing need was to regain control of the Great 
Lakes, so that the Northwest Territory might be 
saved. A brilliant young officer by the name of Perry 
had been given this task. He and his men had been 
hard at work in the forests on the shores of Lake 
Erie, for they had to build their own ships. 

In September, 18 13, Perry's fleet met a British 
squadron on Lake Erie. There followed one of the 

hardest, sharpest naval fights in our 

Pcrrv's 
history. Perry's flagship was the Law- 
rence, named in memory of the commander 
of the Chesapeake. On its blue flag gleamed in white 
letters the words which have since become the motto 
of our navy — ''Don't give up the ship!' The 
Lawrence pushed ahead of the other six vessels of the 
fleet and presently was in the full fury of battle. 



44 



DEMOCR.\CY 



Her men were shot down, two, three at a time. Only 

v/hen there were not enough left to fire the guns, 

and his flagship was nearly shattered, did Perry seem 

to realize that there was no 

hope of saving the Lawrence. 

The blue flag with its gallant 
motto still fluttered aloft. Perry 
seized it, left his lieutenant in 
command of the Lawrence, and 
descended into a waiting boat. 
Standing erect in the stern, with 
the emblem fluttering about 
him, he was exposed to the 
direct fire of the enemy. With 
anxious hearts the Americans watched him 
as he covered the quarter of a mile to the 
Niagara, the next largest ship of his 
fleet. As soon as the English realized 
what Perry was trying to do, they turned 
their guns upon him. \'olley after 
volley came shrieking across the waters. 
A shot pierced the side of the boat. 
Perry ripped off his coat and plugged the hole with 
it. Finally the Niagara was reached. With the blue 
flag flying from her mast top, she plunged forward 
into the heat of the battle. The other American 
ships rallied gallantly about her. In ten minutes 
a British sailor appeared, waving a white handker= 
chief tied to a splinter. 




Flag used by 

Perry at the 

Battle of Lake 
Erie 



THE BURNING OF WASHINGTON* 45 

For the first time in England's long, proud history 
an entire British squadron had surrendered. ''We 
have met the enemy and they are ours, " 
was the simple message of victory sent by 
Perry to General Harrison. Harrison 
was in charge of the land forces near by. He was now 
able to regain Detroit, and defeat the British at the 
Thames River. The Northwest Territory was saved. 

In 1 8 14 England's war with France ceased. Thus 
freed, she put new energy into the war with America. 
She planned a threefold attack : from the north ; from 
the middle coast; and from the south by way of the 
Mississippi. The first campaign started from Canada 
to invade New York by the Lake Champlain route. 
Captain Macdonough met the fleet on Lake Champ- 
lain and defeated it. Whereupon the British army 
deemed it unwise to proceed further. Thus the first 
plan failed. 

The operations on the eastern seaboard were 
attended with greater success. English ships sailed 
up Chesapeake Bay and unloaded an 
army, which marched directly toward the r tn- "j^. ^°f 
capital. As it bore down upon Wash- 
ington, householders gathered their treasures together 
and fled from the city. 

In the White House the President's wife, the popu- 
lar ''Dolly Madison," was reluctant to leave. Not 
until the last moment of safety did she depart, after 
filling her carriage with as many valuables as it would 



46 DEMOCRACY 

hold. Among these was a portrait of George Wash- 
ington — the destroying hand of the enemy should 
not touch that! 

The conquering troops laid low our capital city. 
They plundered and set fire to public buildings, — 
the treasury, the Capitol, the White House. Then 
they marched toward Baltimore. Fort McHenry 
defended that city against the attacks of a British 
fleet. The battle began in daylight and raged through 
the night. It is a battle that lives in the hearts of 
Americans because one of their best-loved hymns was 
written at this time. 

In a small boat moored to the British flagship, two 
Americans were held prisoners. As long as the day- 
The " Star light lasted they could see the Stars and 
Spangled Stripes waving above the fort. But with 

Banner " ^j^^ darkness came an agony of suspense. 

Which side was winning? Through the long hours 
they waited for the first gray streak of dawn. As the 
light gradually brightened they strained their eyes 
and then — there was Old Glory waving in the breeze ! 
Baltimore was still safe. One of these prisoners was 
Francis Scott Key. On the back of an old letter he 
wrote the verses beginning, ''Oh, say, can you see 
by the dawn's early light." When released, so the 
story goes, he gave the poem to his uncle, who 
ordered a printer to strike off copies. The printer 
evidently liked it, for before the ink was yet dry he 
rushed to a near-by restaurant frequented by patriotic 



THE "STAR SPANGLED BANNER" 47 

Americans, burst in upon them, and read aloud the 
thrilUng first stanza. *'Sing it," some one cried. 
The words were immediately fitted to a popular air, 

Part of the " Star Spangled Banner " in Key's writing 

and the "Star Spangled Banner" went ringing 

throughout the country. 

For the third part of their plan, the English gathered 

forces amounting to full twelve thousand. New 

Orleans was to be the scene of action. 

To its defense the President sent Andrew „ ^ , 

New Orleans 

Jackson, a man' of great vigor. Under 
him were untrained militiamen, in numbers only half 
as many as the English soldiers, but each of the mettle 
that fights to the finish. It was in December, 1814, 
that the British landed. Jackson threw up intrench- 
ments south of the city. On January 8, 18 15, the 
English made an attack, and Jackson forced them 
back, not once but twice. The Americans, behind 
their rude breastworks, and with a small amount of 
ammunition at their command, mowed down twenty- 
five hundred brave British who fought for their lion 
as the Americans fought for their eagle. It was a 
great victory, but it was needless. A treaty of peace 
had been signed on December 24, 18 14. There were 



48 DEMOCRACY 

in those days, however, no five-day steamers to carry 

the news, or ocean cables to flash the message. 

Curiously, the treaty made no mention of the chief 

causes of the war, — the searching of American vessels 

and the interference with American com- 
Peace 

merce. It was not needed, however, for 

the war had won for the United States so hearty a re- 
spect from other nations that no such indignities would 
be practiced again. Other advantages were gained. 
For one thing, we had learned how able our seamen 
were and how, much we could depend on our navy in 
case of trouble. Cut ofif by the war from the manu- 
factured goods of England, the Americans had them- 
selves begun new kinds of manufacture. In this way 
many of our gigantic industries had their beginning. 
The less we needed to purchase goods abroad, the 
more real was our independence of Europe. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

The third President was Thomas Jefferson, the 
leader of the Democratic-Republican party, who 
served two terms. Under his leadership the Loui- 
siana Territory was purchased, and Lewis and Clark 
were sent to explore the new country. The United 
States waged a war with Tripoli, which resulted in 
making that country agree to let American ships 
alone. 

Jefferson was succeeded by James Madison, who 
also served two terms. During this time our Second 
War with England was waged. It arose from Eng- 



SECOND WAR WITH ENGLAND 



49 



land's interference with our commerce, and from her 
impressment of American seamen into her navy. War 
was declared in 1812, and opened by an unsuccessful 
attempt to invade and conquer Canada. This was 
followed by the defeat of the American army in the 
Northwest. 

But on the seas the Americans gained many stirring 
victories. The Constitution defeated the Guerriere, 
and earned for herself the title of Old Ironsides. The 
United States captured the Macedonian. There were 
many other successes, and also many defeats, begin- 
ning with the capture of the Chesapeake by the 
Shannon, 




The Louisiana Ptirchase 



In the Northwest the situation was saved in 1813 by 
Commodore Perry, whose fleet met the British squad- 
ron on Lake Erie and completely defeated it, and by 



50 DEMOCRACY 

General Harrison, who won the battle of the Thames. 
The British, during their campaign in the middle states, 
sacked Washington, but were repulsed at Baltimore. 
At the south, early in 1815, a British army was 
overwhelmingly defeated at New Orleans, by the 
Americans under General Jackson. 

The treaty of peace did not mention the chief cause 
of the war, but this was not necessary. England 
never again attempted to search our vessels or inter- 
fere with our commerce. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

The Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803, 
and afterwards explored by Lewis and Clark. 

The Second War with England, 1812-1815, secured inde- 
pendence for American commerce and gained the respect of 
European nations for the United States. 

Bibliography 

Decatur. — Sea well: Decatur and Somers. 
Jefferson. — Burton: Four American Patriots. 

Ellis: Thomas Jefferson. 

Sparks: Men who made the Nation. 
Perry. — Barnes: Hero of Erie. 
General. — Barnes: Yankee Ships and Yankee Sailors. 

Eggleston: Captain Sam. 

Hitchcock: Louisiana Purchase. 

Sea well: Twelve Naval Captains. 

Tomlinson: Boy Officers of 1812. 

Tomlinson: Boy Soldiers of 1812. 




The strange craft created much astonishment " 



CHAPTER III 

PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

• 

By the close of the War of 1812 the Federalist party 
was fast disappearing. In 181 7 Madison was suc- 
ceeded by another Democratic-Republi- 
can, Tames Monroe. When his first term 

. . . prosperity 

expired, the Federalists nominated no one, 
so that Monroe's reelection was almost unanimous. 
Because at this time there were no political parties 
opposing each other, the period is often spoken of as 
the Era of Good Feeling. 

It was a time of general prosperity. Relieved of 
the strain of warfare, the people were free to give their 
attention to other things. Great advances were made 
in industry. Marvelous inventions followed one an- 
other with rapidity. Even before the outbreak of the 
war startling changes had taken place. The chief 
of these was due to an American inventor. Robert 
Fulton had built a large boat that would go without 
sails! 

Fulton, when a young man, studied in Europe. 
There he learned of the steam engine, the invention 
of a Scotchman, James Watt. Fulton tried to 
make use of the steam engine in the construction 

51 



52 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

of a torpedo boat. Abandoning this work for a time, 

he planned to build a steamboat. People called 

the idea a dream and laughed at the 

.^ ^t * dreamer. It seemed as if they were 

the Clermont •' 

right, for the first attempt to make 
the steamboat go was a failure. Napoleon, the Em- 
peror of France, realizing how useful a successful 
steamboat would be, ordered another test. The night 
before the new trial was to take place the little boat 
sank, borne down by the weight of its machinery. 
Fulton was bitterly disappointed. 

The inventor determined to make the next attempt 
in his own country. Accordingly, he built the Cler- 
mont, which was promptly nicknamed Fulton's Folly. 
Her trial trip, up the Hudson, was made in August, 
1807. Crowds stood on the river bank ready to jeer 
at the inventor, but the Clermont, despite a strong 
head wind, made the trip from New York to Albany 
in thirty- two hours. Then the crowds cheered in 
wonder and admiration, for sailing vessels took four 
days to cover the same distance. 

The strange craft created much astonishment and 
some alarm. Because of its huge side wheels, many 
thought it was a mill. One old countryman fled from 
the sight of it and confided to his wife that he had seen 
"the devil on his way to Albany in a sawmill." How- 
ever, steamboats on the Hudson were soon making 
regular trips, and were used by many people because 
of the time saved. The fare was high — fourteen 



THE ERIE CANAL 53 

dollars — and the accommodations poor. There were 

no staterooms or beds. Each passenger brought his 

own bedding and slept on the floor in a space marked 

off for his use. 

Not alone the Hudson, but presently all the large 

rivers were floating the new wonder on their waters. 

The Mississippi was one of the rivers that 

. . - 1 The Erie 

made great gams m commerce through 

the use of the steamboat. Soon the 

people of the East began to fear that all the trade 

between Europe and the West would go by way of 

this river. Governor Clinton, of New York, urged 

the building of a canal across his state. It was to 

follow the route that had been used by the Indians 

and early settlers when they journeyed westward 

through the Mohawk valley. From near Albany, on 

the Hudson, it was to extend to Buffalo, on Lake Erie. 

It would thus, by the shortest route possible, connect 

the Atlantic Ocean with the Great Lakes and the 

productive region around them. 

The canal plan, like that of the steamboat, met with 

derision. One of the arguments against it was that 

Lake Erie is nearly six hundred feet above the level 

of the Hudson. How, the people asked, can water 

be made to run uphill? This criticism was easily 

met: locks would be used to make the water lift 

the canal boats over the hills. New York state 

appealed to Congress for money with which to 

build the canal. Although refused, the New Yorkers 



54 



PROGRESS AND INVENTION 



kept up their efforts so vigorously that they earned 
for themselves the title of the "most persistent beg- 
gars in Congress." 

People called the proposed canal Clinton's Big 
Ditch. They hesitated to put the state's money 
into the digging of a ditch nearly four hundred miles 
long, forty feet wide, and four feet deep. Finally, 
business men, under the leadership of Governor 
Clinton, undertook the task of putting through the 
work. They managed to convince the New York 
legislature that it would be to the benefit of the state 
to vote funds for this purpose. The money was 
secured and in 1817 the work was begun. In 1825 




Towing a canal boat 



Governor Clinton had the pleasure of making the first 
trip through the completed canal. The fare from 
Buffalo to Albany was soon reduced to less than a 



THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT 55 

quarter of what it had been. Towns sprang up along 
the banks of the canal, like mushrooms in the night. 

The western states, too, Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, 
profited by the Erie Canal. Now they could buy their 
axes, plows, and other utensils much more cheaply 
than heretofore. Probably the city that profited 
most of all from the canal was New York, for it was 
to this port that much of the produce from the West 
found its way. So, to the slowly moving canal boat, 
pulled by a sleepy-stepping donkey, the city of New 
York owes in part its giantlike growth. 

The Erie Canal opened up for settlement the west- 
ern part of New York state and the region of the 
Great Lakes. As far back as 1790 the 

people of the states along the seaboard 

^ ^ ° movement 

had begun to move westward. Those 
from New England followed the Mohawk valley. 
Those from Pennsylvania and Virginia migrated into 
what is now West Virginia and Kentucky. Those 
from southern Virginia and northern North Carolina 
journeyed in a steady stream over the Blue Ridge 
Mountains into the Tennessee valley. 

These pioneers found their way beset by difificulty 
and danger. Of those whose paths led through the 
wilderness, many traveled afoot. Others went on 
horseback or by wagon. Flatboats dotted the rivers, 
carrying whole families with all their worldly goods. 
The woods rang with the crash of falling timber as the 
settler made a clearing for his rude log cabin. As of 



56 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

old, the Indian, to keep his hunting ground, fought the 
white man, step by step; and as of old, the white man 
won. 

The farther west the people pushed, the greater 
their need of connection with the East. They wanted 
the clothing and farming tools which were made in the 
East. These they paid for with the rich products of 
the soil or with the furs from the animals of the 
mountain regions. To meet the demand for better 
means of transportation, the government built a road 
called the National Pike or the Cumberland Road. It 
went from Cumberland, Maryland, on the Potomac, 
to Wheeling, West Virginia, on the Ohio. Yet more 
than this was needed. 

The relief which came at last was due to the inven- 
tion of an Englishman, George Stephenson. It was 

he who gave to the world the first locomo- 
Early railroads . ^ ,, . , , 

tive. Small engmes, run on short roads 

of wooden tracks, had been in use in mines; but 
Stephenson's engine was far larger than these and 
very imposing to the people of his time. The com- 
mon means of travel was the stagecoach, and the 
prospect of going more rapidly was startling. An 
English magazine writer said most earnestly, "We 
trust that Parliament will, in all railways it may 
sanction, limit the speed to eight or nine miles an 
hour, which is as great as can be ventured on with 
safety." Stephenson's own prophecy that "the time 
is coming when it will be cheaper for a working man 



EARLY RAILROADS 57 

to travel on a railway than to walk on foot," seemed 
very foolish. 

The earliest American railroad was the Baltimore 
and Ohio. The first stretch of road ran from Balti- 
more fourteen miles westward to EUicott Mills. When 
ground was broken for its construction, the first 
shovelful was turned by a very old man, Charles 
Carroll of Carrollton, Maryland, the only signer of 
the Declaration of Independence then living. With 
silver spade in hand he said, '4 consider this one of 
the most important acts of my life, second only to that 
of signing the Declaration of Independence, if second 
even to that." For a short time the cars on this road 
were pulled by horses, but these were soon replaced by 
locomotives. The first locomotive was built by Peter 
Cooper. On its trial trip a thoroughbred horse raced 
with it. The locomotive came very near winning and 
would have won but for a slight accident. Its success 
greatly astonished the good people of the day. 

Several other lines were started about the same 
time as the Baltimore road. At first wooden tracks 
were used and there were no regular railroad com- 
panies. Any one might use the rails on which to run 
his own car or engine. The first railroad trains had 
no cab for the engineer or fireman and no brake with 
which to stop the train quickly. The cars were little 
more than stagecoaches on rails. The passengers 
were fully exposed to the wind and the weather, smoke, 
cinders, and flying dirt. On the hills the train was 



58 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

pulled up by means of strong ropes and a stationary 
engine. Before crossing a bridge the smokestack had 
to be lowered, because the bridges of those days were 
covered with low roofs. In consequence, heavy 
clouds of smoke lighted by burning cinders spread 
over the choking passengers so that they hid their 
faces and gasped for air. But all these discomforts 
seemed trifling compared with the results gained. 

The locomotive opened up this great country with 
its wonderful resources. The cities were brought 
closer together. The time soon came when it was 
possible to go from New York to Philadelphia in a 




A railroad train in 183 1 

half day instead of a week. Within five years, more 
than twenty railroads had been started in the United 
States. A steady increase followed, and from 1850 
to i860 each year saw as much road built as would 
reach from New York to Denver. 

The early locomotives burned wood, but had they 
continued to be dependent upon wood for fuel, it is 

doubtful if we should now have our great 

Coal found in ^ r m j -t^i 11 c c 

^ , . system ot railroads. 1 he problem 01 tur- 
Pennsylvania -^ ^ ^ 

nishing fuel for the steam monsters was 
solved by the discovery of immense deposits of coal 



COAL FOUND IN PENNSYLVANIA 59 

An odd story is told in this connection. Two Penn- 
sylvania Indians in much alarm related to a Quaker 
friend their experience of the previous evening. They 
told him that they had built a fire under a river bank. 
To prop up their kettle they had used some black 
rocks. Presently they were startled to see the rocks 
catch fire and burn brightly, sending up clouds of 
filthy black smoke. They were dreadfully frightened, 
for they feared an evil spirit was at work. So they 
seized the kettle, poured the water over the fire, and 
fled. The Quaker quieted the fears of the Indians, 
telling them that their black rocks were coal. He 
investigated the region, and found it rich in this 
valuable mineral. Later, anthracite, which is hard 
coal, was discovered. Since that time large quantities 
of coal have been taken from Pennsylvania as well as 
from many other regions of the United States. 

The railroad was not the only influence that was 
bringing the people closer together. The printing 
press was doing its share. Daily newspapers were 
being issued in Boston, Baltimore, and New York. 
By 1840, also, the great American express business 
had been started. It was begun in a simple way. A 
young man carried parcels in a small handbag between 
Boston and New York. At first he had no more to 
do than he could attend to alone, but in a short time 
he had so many orders that he had to hire an assistant. 
Think of the great army of men now in the express 
business! 



6o PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

Presently another advance in the means of com- 
munication was made by an American inventor, 

Samuel F. B. Morse. He said that he 
Morse and the , , , i ^ • • ^ 

- , could make electricity carry messages 

over long distances. But he found it 
hard to convince people that he could do so unheard-of 
a thing. In his devotion to the study of his inven- 
tion, Professor Morse suffered all sorts of hardships. 
It is said that his funds once became so low that he 
had no food for twenty-four hours. Finally, in 1844, 
he persuaded Congress to give him the money to build 
a line from Washington to Baltimore. It was soon 
completed, and the world marv^eled at its success. 
The dots and dashes of the first message, traveling 



A- — 


H 


0- - 


U 


B 


I-- 


p 


V 


C-- - 


J 


Q 


W 


D 


K 


R- -- 


X 


E- 


L — 


S 


Y-- - 


F 


M 


T — 


Z 


G 


N 








The Morse telegraph alphabet 





the forty miles in an instant, spelled out the words: 

"What hath God wrought! " 

These were a few of the striking changes that had 

taken place in the early nineteenth century, and in 

all directions rapid progress was being 
Other inven- it-*. 1 r o 

made, ror instance, bet ore 1825, grain 

was threshed by beating it with a heavy 

stick attached to the end of a leather strap, or by 



NEW INVENTIONS 6i 

having cattle tramp on it. Then came the threshing 
machine. With it and the reaper, invented a Httle 
later, the farmer's work was made much easier. By 
this time, too, he had added to his tools, American- 
made axes, hatchets, and chisels. A further addition 
was that useful friend of boy or man, the pocket knife. 

In the earlier days, after cutting down a tree, the 
settler sawed and finished it into boards as best he 
could. But the old ways were being abandoned. 
Now the big tree trunks were fed to machines that 
sawed them into boards of the desired size. There 
were, too, other machines that planed boards into 
polished smoothness. 

The housewife, as well as her husband, profited by 
the progress. Formerly she had to bank the fire over 
night. Even if she did this very, very carefully, it 
sometimes went out. Then perhaps she would have 
to awaken a drowsy small boy in the cold early morn- 
ing and send him in haste to her nearest neighbor to 
borrow a shovelful of hot coals with which to start 
the fire again. A new invention, the sulphur match, 
made this no longer necessary. Indeed, it may be 
that she boasted that in her household the open fire 
was seldom used, the stove having taken its place. 

As early as 1800, in the homes of the prosperous, 
carpets, woven in America, covered the floor of at 
least one room. Even if the other rooms were bare, 
the labor of keeping them clean was made much 
lighter by the introduction of brooms manufactured 



62 



PROGRESS AND INVENTION 




A spinning wheel 



from the broom plant. Compared with these, the 

earlier brooms, made of brush, were very rude imple- 
ments. The new ones 
were much lighter and 
more pliable. 

In many a farmhouse 
the spinning wheel was be- 
coming idle. The farm- 
er's wife soon found that 
she could save time and 
money by buying her 
fabrics in the city. More- 
over, there she could 

make her selection from the large variety put forth 

daily by the busy mills. So, even though the journey 

was still somewhat 

uncomfortable, she 

was willing to 

make it. 

And the shoe- 
maker! No longer 

did he travel from 

home to home. 

Time was when 

Crispin, as the 

children called him, 

was a welcome vis- 




Spinning cotton in a mill 



itor in the household. He was generally a jolly fellow 
who traveled over the same country, season after sea- 



MACHINERY AND MANUFACTURING 63 

son. At the farmer's door he would inquire into the 
condition of the shoes of the various members of the 
family. Nearly always there was work to do — but 
first the bargain had to be made. Sometimes the 
farmer provided his own leather. Often Crispin ac- 
cepted board and lodging as part of his pay. His 
fund of stories never gave out, nor was he ever weary 
of telling them. But, alas! the Crispin shoes went 
out of style. Far handsomer ones could be pur- 
chased from the factories. So, before long, the travel- 
ing shoemaker was no more. 

Mrs. New York had become quite particular about 
the style and quality of her wardrobe. Once the 
number of her gowns was limited. Now she must have 
a different kind for each and every occasion. She 
began to keep one eye upon Mrs. Philadelphia lest 
the latter lady outstep her in the latest fashions. 

All these changes necessarily brought about great 

changes in the manner of living. When the farmer 

purchased one of the new machines he 
1' ' 1 r 1 • • ^1 1 Machinery and 

dismissed irom his service the men whose , / . 

manufacturing 

work the machine did more rapidly. 
These men had to go elsewhere for work, and they 
found it in the great growing cities. People of moder- 
ate wealth also sought the cities so that they might 
invest their money in new lines of business. 

The manufacturer was not content to use the labor- 
saving machines for just his own needs. He was on 
the alert to put them to greater use. The larger the 



64 



PROGRESS AND INVENTION 




Fort Dearborn, on the site of Chicago 



machines, or the greater their number, the greater the 
amount of work that can be turned out, — and that 

of course means 
r^^ ''''''^^^''^^ "^ * greater profits. 

And when he can, 

-^ ^M^^^:S^S^y;^ :^g?^^^-;^£T^ ^^ the manu f actu rer 

turns his profits 
into more ma- 
chinery and em- 
ploys more men. 
From such begin- 
nings has grown 
the modern factory with its vast army of workers. 

To the factories and to the canals and railroads 
our large cities owe much of their rapid growth. 
Chicago is a remarkable ex- 
ample. In 1830 it was but a 
small village, protected by a 
fort, called Fort Dearborn. In 
1837 its inhabitants numbered 
4170; to-day they exceed two 
million. 

While this progress in indus- 
tries and inventions was go- 
ing forward, other 
interesting changes 
were taking place. 
For one thing, the United States added to its territory. 
The farsighted JefTerson had secured for the growing 



Florida 
Purchase 




A street in Chicago at present 



THE FLORIDA PURCHASE 65 

nation the vast Louisiana Territory. In 18 19 another 
land purchase was made: Florida was bought from 
Spain for $5,000,000. Contrasted with Louisiana, 
Florida seemed a small return for the money spent — 
but it was well worth the price. It extended our 
Atlantic seaboard southward to the Gulf of Mexico, 
and, besides, there was another good reason for want- 
ing it. 

Florida was the home of the Seminole Indians, 
fierce and barbarous red men. Since they owned no 
golden treasure or mines of rich ore, Spain let them do 
about as they chose. In consequence, the people of 
Georgia and Alabama lived in constant terror of the 
deadly raiding parties that bore down upon them from 
Florida. When pursued, the marauders retreated 
across the border line. Here they were safe, for the 
United States soldiers had no right to follow them into 
the territory of another country. For this reason, too, 
criminals sought to escape to Florida, where the law 
could not punish them. Often they joined the Indian 
parties and urged them to horrible crimes. 

There was one man, however, who dared to put all 
law aside and to enter the troublesome territory. This 
was General Jackson, a hero of the War of 18 12. i\t 
that time the Creeks of Georgia and Alabama had 
joined forces with the English. Jackson had grown 
to hate them. During the progress of the war, 
when the opportunity came, he punished them so 
severely that they were forced to beat a hasty 



66 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

retreat into Florida. Later they united with the 
Seminoles. 

Because of his physical strength and dauntless 
courage, Jackson's soldiers affectionately called him 
Old Hickory. When he was sent to protect the 
frontier after the war, he marched boldly into the 
Spanish territory. For three months Old Hickory 
was a name to be feared. Nor did Jackson cease 
operations until the country was thoroughly subdued. 
Spain resented his bold, high-handed action. It 
looked for a while as if the United States might be led 
into war with her. But all this trouble was settled 
by the purchase of Florida. 

Other events, too, were happening in the political 
world. In 1823 the United States made clear its 
attitude toward foreign nations. Presi- 
j^ . dent Monroe proclaimed to European 

countries how we should treat any inter- 
ference by them in America. It happened in this way. 
The monarchs of Europe feared the spirit of inde- 
pendence which the American colonists had shown. 
This spirit was growing elsewhere, and might lead 
their people to rise up against them. To prevent 
such a happening several of these monarchs formed 
an alliance, by which each promised to help the 
others subdue rebellious subjects. Spain was asking 
for help to reconquer her South American colonies 
which had set themselves up as independent nations. 
It seemed, moreover, to those who were looking 






THE MONROE DOCTRINE 



67 



on, that Russia meant to increase her territory in 
America. She already owned Alaska, then called 
Russian America. So, in a message to Congress, 
President Monroe stated plainly our feelings in both 
matters. He said that we should take sides with no 
European country when it was at war. On the other 
hand, if a European power attempted to conquer 
territory or to plant new colonies in the 'Western 
World we should regard it as "an unfriendly act." 
This message practically said to the countries of 
Europe: "Keep out of America." Although it has 
never been put into a law, the American people have 

ever since sup- 
ported this dec- 
laration, known 
as the Monroe 
Doctrine. 

An important 
change took place, 
also, Jackson and 
in the the spoils 
way System 

the Presidents 
regarded office- 
holders. Monroe 
was succeeded by John Quincy Adams, and he in turn 
by Jackson, the hero of New Orleans and Florida. 
Jackson claimed that it was not fair that those who 
had been appointed to government positions by former 




The home of President JacKson, in Tennessee 



68 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

Presidents should continue to hold office. He said that 
others ought to have a chance. In consequence, he 
turned out at least two thousand men and filled their 
places with his own political friends. This made posi- 
tions look like rewards for belonging to the victorious 
side. As some one put it, "To the victors belong the 
spoils." Hence, the practice is generally spoken of as 
the Spoils System. It was followed for a long time 
afterward and resulted in much harm to the country. 
The Presidents from Jefferson to Jackson were all 
Democratic-Republicans. From this time on, the 
party was known as the Democratic 

A new party t t i t\ /r • t 7 t-. 

party. Under Martm Van Buren it 
held the presidency for yet another term. But 
after thus continuing in power for forty years, the 
Democrats met defeat. The new Whig party put 
forth as their presidential candidate, General Harrison, 
another hero of the War of 18 12; for Vice President, 
they named John Tyler. It was at Tippecanoe that 
Harrison, just before the opening of the war, had 
defeated the Indians. So now to the song of ''Tippe- 
canoe and Tyler too" the Whigs marched to victory, 
and the power of the Democrats was broken. But 
the joy of the victorious party was soon turned to 
mourning. Harrison had been in office only a month 
when he died. For the first time in our history the 
Vice President was called upon to succeed his chief, 
and Tyler became President. The Democrats came 
back to power under the next President, General Polk. 



THE OREGON COUNTRY 69 

It was during this period that two questions of 
disputed territory were settled. One of these con- 
cerned the far northwest. Out beyond 

the Louisiana Purchase was a tract of ^ 

Country 

land known as ''the Oregon Country." 
There English and American traders had settled, so 
both countries claimed the territory. England claimed 
as far south as 42° north latitude, while the United 
States claimed as far north as 54° 40'. Some enthu- 
siastic Americans raised the cry, "Fifty-four forty or 
fight!" and for a short time war threatened. Fortu- 
nately the matter was settled by compromise. In 
1846 the Oregon Country was divided, and the 49th 
parallel was fixed as the boundary line between the 
two nations. 

The second dispute was not so peaceably settled. 
The story dates back as far as 182 1. In that year, 
after three centuries of Spanish rule, Mexico suc- 
ceeded in winning her independence. But the Mexi- 
cans were not ready for republican government. The 
greater part of them were half-breeds — half Indian 
and half Spanish. The remainder were either native 
Indians or pure Spanish. Having thrown ofT the 
yoke of Spain, they were yet unable to agree among 
themselves. One* of the most northern of the Mexi- 
can states, Texas, by hard fighting, gained her free- 
dom in 1836. Her independence was recognized by 
the United States and later by France, Great Britain, 
and other European powers, but not by Mexico. 



70 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

Texas has a large area. Her rich and fertile soil 

and mineral resources had attracted many Americans. 

These not only had invested large sums 

nnex i ^^^ ^^^ made their homes in that promis- 

Texas ^ ^ , ^ 

ing region. After eight or ten years of 

independence Texas sought admission to our Union. 

Immediately there flashed out that rivalry between 

the North and South which in late years had been 

growing rapidly. The South ardently desired the 




The first capital of Texas 

admission of Texas because it meant greatly in- 
creased representation for that section in Congress. 
For the same reason the North opposed it, fearing 
to have the South strengthened. 

The question was serious, too, because of the atti- 
tude of Mexico. She had not acknowledged Texas 
as independent; therefore, annexation to the United 
States was likely to bring war between the two nations. 
To this argument there were those who answered: 
"The United States would do well to declare war 
against Mexico. She has, at various times, damaged 



ANNEXATION OF TEXAS 71 

the property of American citizens, insulted our officers, 
and dishonored the flag." 

In spite of the argument against it, in 1845 Texas 
was admitted to the Union. Immediately dispute 
arose over the southern boundary line. The Texans 
claimed to the Rio Grande, but Mexico insisted that 
the line should be a river some hundred miles north- 
ward. President Polk ordered General Taylor with 
a strong force into the disputed section. The Mexi- 
cans felt this to be an invasion of their territory, so, 
crossing the Rio Grande, they, too, entered the 
disputed field. A slight skirmish took place, in which 
some Americans were killed. Polk promptly sent a 
message to Congress: "Mexico has crossed the 
boundary of the United States, invaded our territory, 
and shed i\merican blood on American soil." Con- 
gress declared that war existed. 

Though many questioned the justice of this war, 
there was little doubt during the two years it lasted as 
to which side was going to win. From 

^War witll 

the outset the Americans showed superior j^^^^^.^ 
training and better knowledge of military 
tactics. Even when outnumbered, their enthusiasm 
and dogged persistency won the day. The Mexicans 
fought bravely, but were handicapped by lack of sup- 
plies, poor generalship, and a weak government. They 
went down before the dash and energy of the invaders. 
In the northern campaign, General Taylor, called 
by his devoted soldiers Rough and Ready, won every 



72 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

battle of importance. He was attacked by the 
Mexicans at Buena Vista, where he won a victory 
that gave the Americans control over a large area. 
In the south General Scott landed at Vera Cruz 
and took the city after a siege of more than a week. 
Thence he successfully fought his way in from the 
coast until, in 1847, he stood, a conqueror, in the 
capital city of Mexico, where Cortes had stood three 
hundred twenty-six years before. 

This ended the war, though the treaty was not made 
until the following year. By it the United States 
secured not only the Rio Grande as the boundary line, 
but also territory reaching from Texas to Oregon, out 
of which, in time, California and several other states 
were formed. For this territory, however, the United 
States paid a good round sum. She gave Mexico 
$15,000,000 and, for her, paid to American citizens 
whose property had been injured, damages amounting 
to $3,500,000. This was followed five years later by 
the purchase, for $10,000,000, of yet another portion 
of Mexican territory south of the Gila River; it is 
usually spoken of as the Gadsden Purchase in honor 
of the man who brought it about. Since that time 
the two neighbors have never had any misunderstand- 
ing over the boundary line between them. 

The Mexican War was the first in which our men of 
arms swept all things before them. Throughout the 
country it aroused a fire of enthusiasm that did much 
to weld us together as a nation. 



FROM 1807 TO 1848 73 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

In 1807 Robert Fulton built and ran the first 
successful steamboat, which made many trips between 
New York and Albany. 

In 181 7 James Monroe succeeded Madison in the 
presidency, and the period of his two terms is known 
as the Era of Good Feeling. In the year he came into 
office, the state of New York began work on the Erie 
Canal, completing it eight years later. The canal 
helped to open up the country west of the Appala- 
chian Mountains, which heretofore had been reached 
only by wagon roads. The canal and the roads were 
soon supplemented by railroads, the first of which was 
begun in 1828. 

The days of Monroe and his successors in office were 
full of progress in still other directions. Rich de- 
posits of coal were found, which furnished power for 
railroads and manufactures. Many important inven- 
tions were made, among them the electric telegraph, 
the threshing machine, and the sawmill. All these new 
creations helped to make life more comfortable, but 
also led to decided changes in the manner of living. 
Factories were built near one another, and people 
gathered in large towns and cities. 

In politics important events took place. Monroe 
set forth the doctrine that the United States would 
keep out of any dispute European nations might have 
among themselves, but would object if any of them 
tried to extend its territory in America. 

President Jackson was the founder of the Spoils 
System. He said that the winning party in an elec- 




(74) 



FROM 1807 TO 1848 75 

tion ought to put out of office those who had been 
appointed by its opponents and fill their places with 
its own members. 

In 1 8 19 the United States purchased Florida from 
Spain. In 1846 the northwestern boundary of the 
United States was fixed by treaty with Great Britain 
at 49° north latitude. 

In 1845 Texas, which had but recently gained her 
independence frorn Mexico, was admitted as a state. 
This led to war with Mexico. Under Generals Taylor 
and Scott the American armies defeated the Mexicans 
at every point. The treaty, in 1848, settled the 
boundary line between the two nations and also pro- 
vided for the purchase by the United States of an 
extensive territory in the West. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. 

The Erie Canal was completed in 1825. 

The first American railroad was begun in 1828. 

The Mexican War, 1 846-1 848, was caused by the annexation 
of Texas and a dispute over its southern boundary. 

The Mexican War, in which the Americans won every battle, 
resulted in fixing the boundary at the Rio Grande, and in the 
purchase from Mexico of California and other territory. 

Bibliography 

Erie Canal. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 
Fulton. — Eggleston: Stories of Great Americans for Little 

Americans. 

Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 

Hale: Stories of Invention. 

Jacobs: Historic Inventions. 



76 PROGRESS AND INVENTION 

Jackson. — Brooks: Historic Americans. 

Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 
Mexican War. — Smith: Under the Cactus Flag. 

Stoddard: The Red Mustang. 
Morse. — Burns: Story of Great Inventions. 

Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 
Stephenson. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 

Hale: Stories of Invention. 

Jacobs: Historic Inventions. 

Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress. 
Texas. — Otis: Philip of Texas. 

General. — Mowry: American Inventions and Inventors. 







They enjoyed getting together for a rollicking time 



CHAPTER IV 
SLAVERY 

Thousands of years ago all the people of the earth 
were savages. In those days bloody wars were of 
frequent occurrence. There was only 
one law : might made right. There were ."^^^ ° 
none of the rules of war which to-day 
lessen its cruelties, and so the battles were even 
more horrible than now. Not only were prisoners 
put to death, but often helpless women and children 
and old men were brutally massacred. 

In time, victors realized that they could do better 
with a captive than to kill him. They could put him 
to work. They needed to pay him no wages, but only 
to feed him so that he could do the tasks set before 
him. Then they could take the products of his labor 
for their own use. In this way there arose that which 
we call slavery, — -one person owned by another just 
as a horse or a dog or a piece of furniture is owned. 
There were other reasons for the rise of slavery, 
but warfare was the chief cause of it. Thus we 
see that, when it was first established, slavery was 
really a step in advance. It saved people from 
horrible deaths, giving them their lives on condition 

77 



78 SLAVERY 

that they work for their masters, the masters who 
had conquered them in battle. 

Presently there grew up the custom of bartering 
slaves. If a man owned a slave just as he owned a 
dog, surely he could sell the slave if he wanted to, just 
as he would sell his dog. Slavery once established, 
people bought and sold slaves, as they would buy and 
sell animals or farm implements. They seldom took 
the trouble to inquire how the slaves had been ob- 
tained originally. This made it easy for men to make 
a business of trading in slaves. They would go into 
a country and seize people in great numbers either by 
force or by trickery. Then they would sell their 
captives as if they were cattle. 

Thus it came about that even civilized people kept 
slaves. The Spaniards, when they first came to the 
New World, made slaves of the Indians and put them 
to hard labor. Not long afterward, English traders 
began the practice of buying negro slaves in Africa 
and selling them at great profit in America. For 
many years this trade in African slaves was carried on 
by the people of several nations. It was in 1619 that 
the first negro slaves were brought to English America. 

When, in that year, a Dutch man-of-war sailed up 

the James River and offered some twenty negro slaves 

for sale, the settlers of Jamestown bought 

av y in xh^m without hesitation. From this be- 
Amenca 

ginning, the slave trade in America grew 

to very large proportions. At the time of the Revolu- 



INTRODUCTION OF SLAVERY 79 

tion, slaves were found in every one of the thirteen 
colonies. By far the greater number were in the 
South. In fact, in the year 1790, there were sixteen 
times as many slaves in the southern states as in the 
northern states, — not because the people of the North 
thought that slavery was wrong, but because the 
slaves were not particularly needed there. 

This was due chiefly to the differences in climate 
which brought about different occupations and differ- 
ent ways of living in the two regions. In the North, 
the work in the shops and on the small farms could be 
done just as well and even better by the white men 
than by slaves. Practically the only negroes there 
were family servants. In the South, with its hotter 
climate, the chief industry was the raising of large 
crops of tobacco, rice, and indigo. The negroes, from 
the hot belt of Africa, were better able than were the 
white men to work under the broiling southern sun. 
Thus, in the South large plantations grew up, each 
with its small colony of slaves. 

In course of time most of the slaves had little 
knowledge of Africa. Many years had passed since 
their ancestors were brought to America. They 
themselves had known nothing of the awful horror of 
capture by scheming traders nor of cruel days and 
nights spent in chains in the hold of the slaveship. 
Born in this country, they grew up knowing no other. 
To them it was home, just as it was home to their 
white masters. 



8o SLAVERY 

Most of the negroes, especially in the northern part 

of the sunny South, lived careless, easy-going lives. 

They were a childlike people, with no 
Plantation life "^ , ., .,. %.,,., 

sense oi responsibility. 1 he little negro 

very early learned the difference between himself and 
the white folks at the Big House. The Big House 
occupied a choice location on the plantation and 
sheltered the master and his family. All the doings 
of the great people there were of intense interest to all 
the blacks, from the little pickaninnies to the oldest 
old aunties and mammies. Whatever Mars' John 
and Missis and little Mars' George and all the others 
were doing was of general concern to the whole colored 
colony. 

About each Big House there clustered the rude huts 
of many families of slaves, — all forming a sort of 
little independent colony. Some of the handier and 
more intelligent of the negroes were kept at the Big 
House to work as butlers and cooks and other family 
servants. The others labored in the fields, frequently 
the women alongside the men. When work was done, 
or they could avoid doing it, they enjoyed getting to- 
gether for a rollicking time. A supper of corn bread 
and bacon and sweet potatoes was reckoned "mighty 
fine eatin'." Some of the thriftier of the negroes kept 
a few chickens. How they were envied by their 
neighbors when, from their cabins, there issued the 
odor of fried chicken, proclaiming to all that they were 
dining in grand style! 



PLANTATION LIFE 



8i 



The negroes were very fond of music and were quite 
clever when it came to playing on simple instruments, 
especially the banjo — it may be that the negroes 
invented the banjo. They greatly enjoyed religious 
meetings, and much of their singing was of jubilee 




Slaves picking cotton 



hymns. They never seemed to tire of gossiping about 
their Mars' John. They loved to boast of how much 
braver and smarter and richer he was than the master 
of the neighboring plantation. An Englishman who 
had traveled in Georgia tells about meeting a slave 
and asking her if she belonged to a certain family. 
She replied merrily, "Yes, I belongs to them and 
they belongs to me." 

One of their songs that showed their pride in 
their master ran thus: 



82 SLAVERY 

" Massa's niggers am slick and fat, 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Shine just like a new beaver hat, 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Turn out here and shuck this corn, 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Biggest pile o' corn seen since I was born, 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 

" Jones's niggers am lean and po* 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Don't know whether they get enough to eat or no, 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Turn out here and shuck this corn. 

Oh! Oh! Oh! 
Biggest pile o' corn seen since I was born, 

Oh! Oh! Oh!" 

From this you see that the negroes spoke a pictur- 
esque English quite their own. Many of them were 
fond of using long words with great gusto, but their 
thoughts for the most part were as simple as their 
daily lives. They lived close to the nature about them 
and delighted in wonderful stories of animals and their 
make-believe adventures. Mr. Joel Chandler Harris, 
writing as " Uncle Remus," has gathered together a 
great many of their stories, which make very enjoy- 
able reading. For instance, one of them begins: 

"Bimeby, one day, arter Brer Fox bin doin' all that 
he could fer to ketch Brer Rabbit, en Brer Rabbit bin 
doin' all he could to keep im fum it, Brer Fox say to 



PLANTATION LIFE 83 

hisself dat he'd put up a game on Brer Rabbit, en he 
ain't mo'n got de wuds out'n his mouf twel Brer 
Rabbit came a lopin' up de road lookin' des ez plump, 
en ez fat, en ez sassy ez a Moggin hoss in a barley- 
patch. 

'''Hoi' on der, Brer Rabbit,' sez Brer Fox, sezee. 

'' 'I ain't got time, Brer Fox,' sez Brer Rabbit, sezee, 
sorter mendin' his licks." 

And so it goes on through several very interesting 
chapters. 

Many of the slaves, under these conditions, were 
quite contented and happy. But on some plantations 
life was sadly different. In parts of 
South Carolina and Georgia, for in- 
stance, rice, for many years the chief crop, was 
grown in hot, unwholesome swamp lands. The 
planters preferred to live in the city of Charleston, 
where it was cooler and more pleasant than on the 
plantations. So they put the work into the hands of 
overseers, who sent the negroes out in gangs and 
sometimes drove them so hard that they became surly 
and ugly. 

Whether the slaves lived in Virginia, in Georgia, or 
in New York, the fact remained that they were slaves. 
It is true that many of the negroes were well cared for. 
No doubt they were better off than they would have 
been if free to shift for themselves. But it is also true 
that there was much suffering and sorrow. For the 
slave was the absolute property of his master. That 



84 SLAVERY 

meant that if the master was disposed to treat his 
slave cruelly, he could do so without any fear of the 
law. More than this, the master could sell the slave 
whenever he chose. The slave's new owner might 
take him hundreds of miles away, and thus he might 
be separated from his family forever. 

In the colonial days people were so familiar with 
slavery that they gave little thought to the question 
The right whether it was right or wrong. Indeed, 
and wrong of most of them took for granted that it was 
slavery right. Some defended it because, they 

said, the negroes were much better off as slaves in 
America than as wild savages in their native homes in 
Africa. Some even w^ent so far as to assert that the 
negroes were not human beings and therefore had no 
rights which men need respect. However, as the 
years passed, many people, north and south, came to 
feel that, old and profitable as it was, slavery could 
not, after all, be right. To them it was clear that 
even if a man were not of the white race, to enslave 
him and treat him as a possession must be wrong. 

These people argued against slavery. Many of 
them were slave owners. Some, by freeing their slaves 
showed that they were quite ready to practice what 
they preached. They had some influence, as is shown 
by the fact that ten of the thirteen original states had 
laws forbidding the importation of slaves. That is, 
slaves already here might be bought and sold, but no 
more could be brought into those states from Africa 



RIGHT AND WRONG OF SLA\ERY 85 

or other countries. However, when the Constitution 
was formed, it was agreed that, for a period of twenty 
years, the United States should not forbid any state 
to import slaves if it wished to do so. This was 
done to please the two Carolinas and Georgia; three 
states that had not yet enough slaves to work their 
fields. 

Most people thought that slavery would gradually 
decline, — perhaps it would die out altogether in the 
course of a few decades. But this hope was soon 
shattered. 

Cotton, which had been a very unimportant plant, 
suddenly became the king of the southern crops. It 
had not been cultivated extensively because it cost so 
much to prepare it for the mills. The cotton plant 
produces a pod or boll filled with fiufify white fibers. 
It is from these fibers that cotton cloth is made, but 
first they must be separated from the countless little 
seeds imbedded in them. One man could spend all 
day faithfully picking out the tiny seeds, and then 
find that he had but four or five pounds of the clean 
cotton to reward him for his day's work. At this rate 
cotton was a very costly product. It would never 
pay to build and run large mills to manufacture it 
into fabrics. 

Just before the close of the eighteenth century, Eli 

Whitney, a young man from New Eng- 
,,..1101 T 1 • ^^^ cotton gin 

land, visited the South, interested in 

cotton, he set his inventive mind to the task of 



86 



SLAVERY 



devising some sort of machinery that would do the 
work of separating seeds and fiber. It was not long 
before he had invented a cotton-engine, or cotton- 
gin, as it was soon nicknamed. His machine combed 

out the seeds from 
the fiber. It did the 
work so well and so 
rapidly that with it 
one man could clean 
as much cotton as 
two hundred men 
could clean by hand. 
This started the plant- 
ers to raising cotton 
instead of some of the 
less profitable crops. 
Now there was much 
more work for slaves 
to do than there had 
ever been before. 
Thus slavery gained a new importance to the people 
of the South. They came to depend more and more 
upon slave labor in their homes and plantations. As 
slavery became more important and necessary to 
them, they defended it vigorously. The whole sub- 
ject soon became a very vexing political problem. 
For sixty years the statesmen of the nation struggled 
to settle it. How it was solved we have next to 
consider. 




The cotton gin 



GROWTH OF SLAVERY 87 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

Human slavery is a very old institution. As people 
became more humane they realized the wrong of it, 
and it no longer exists in any civilized country. In 
the United States, however, it was not abolished 
without a tremendous struggle. 

Slaves were first brought to English America in 
1 61 9, when they were sold to settlers at Jamestown. 
Many thousands more were imported during the two 
centuries following. Owing to the differences in 
climate and in the occupations of the people, there was 
work for many slaves in the southern states, while few 
were employed in the North. 

Slavery existed in the South under various condi- 
tions. On many plantations the life was that of a 
clan centered about the white owner and his family. 
The negroes enjoyed family life and were well cared 
for by their owners. But in some cases, the owners 
of the big plantations lived at a distance and managed 
them through overseers, who often worked the negroes 
cruelly. These slaves had little of the pleasant family 
life that the more fortunate enjoyed. 

The discovery of the cotton gin made matters worse. 
With this machine the planters could work more ne- 
groes and make more money than ever before. Hence 
there was an increased demand for slaves. 

From that time the right and wrong of slavery was 
much discussed and the number of people who were 
opposed to slavery increased rapidly. 

FACT TO BE MEMORIZED 
Negro slavery was introduced in Virginia in 161 9. 



88 SLAVERY 

Bibliography 

Cotton Gin. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 

Hale: Stories of Invention. 

Jacobs: Historic Inventions. 

Mowry: American Inventions and Inventors. 
General. — Harris: On the Plantation. 

Harris: Told by Uncle Remus. 

Harris: Mr. Rabbit at Home. 

Harris: Nights with Uncle Remus. 

Harris: Uncle Remus and the Little Boy. 

Harris: Uncle Remus: his Songs and his Sayings. 



I 




A Lincoln-Douglas debate 



CHAPTER V 
SECESSION 

If we are to understand how slavery figured in 
politics we must go back to the earlier days of the 
nation. The union of the states had been accom- 
plished only because people who disagreed on impor- 
tant questions were ready to meet each other halfway. 
Slavery was one of these questions. Those who 
believed in it and those who did not, seemed willing 
to look at the matter with each other's eyes. The 
result was that several compromises were agreed 
upon. 

Of the thirteen original states, six had many slaves. 
The other seven had few and were opposed to slavery — 
in fact, one after another, they abolished 
it by law. The Constitution provided, conTtiLtLn ^ 
as we remember, that each state should 
have two senators. Thus, as nearly as could be, 
the Senate was divided equally between the two 
sides. 

But in the House of Representatives, each state was 
to be represented according to the number of its 
people. Immediately a serious argument arose. In 
taking the census of the states were the slaves to be 

89 



90 SECESSION 

counted ? Naturally those states in which there were 
many slaves said ''Yes." The others answered : '' But 
you say that slaves are property and not persons; 
therefore, they should not be counted in the popula- 
tion any more than are your horses and cattle." To 
settle this dispute a curious compromise was made. 
It was decided to count each slave as three fifths of 
a person. Thus, if a state had 100,000 white people 
and the same number of slaves, the slaves were to 
be considered as equal to 60,000 white people, and 
the population of the state would be reckoned as 
160,000. 

Another question was: "Shall we allow slaves to be 
imported into the United States?" This, too, was 
settled by compromise. Congress, as we have learned, 
was not to stop the importation of slaves for twenty 
years. At the end of the twenty years Congress 
prohibited the practice entirely. 

A third provision was that if a slave ran away from 
his owner, he could be brought back even if he had 
escaped into a state where slavery was 
Q^^. prohibited. A runaway slave was called 

a fugitive, and we shall hear more about 
Fugitive Slave Laws later on. There was a fourth 
agreement which helped to offset what slavery had 
gained. It was not put into the Constitution, but 
had been made part of the famous Ordinance of 1787. 
This provided that there should be no slavery in any 
part of the great Northwest Territory. It is well to 



THE BALANCE OF STATES 91 

remember that when Congress voted on this measure, 
both northern and southern states voted in favor 
of it. 

Thus, at the beginning of the nation, the people 
supposed they had settled the question of slavery. It 
might have remained settled but for one 
important fact. The population of the , 
lands beyond the limits of the thirteen 
states grew steadily and rapidly. These people soon 
formed states which, from time to time, were admitted 
to the Union. A close balance, however, between slave 
and free states was kept. The first to come in was 
Vermont. Its people had belonged, some to New 
York and some to New Hampshire, so naturally they 
were opposed to slavery. This made eight free states, 
but the six slave states were soon reenforced by the 
admission of Kentucky and Tennessee. Thus in the 
Senate both sides were brought to equal terms. Next 
came Ohio and Louisiana, then Indiana and Missis- 
sippi, then Illinois and Alabama, — three pairs, — in 
each case a free state and a slave state. 

The year 1820 still found both sides equally strong, 
— eleven slave states and eleven free. But in that 
year a new situation presented itself. Missouri, a part 
of the Louisiana Territory, applied for admission as a 
state. There was no law forbidding slavery in this 
territory as there was in the Northwest Territory. 
Thus the question as to whether Missouri should be 
slave or free became a matter of dispute. 



94 SECESSION 

paper called "The Liberator." By the pcet Whittier 
he was termed the 

"Champion of those who groan beneath 
Oppression's iron hand." 

Whittier was one of Garrison's strongest supporters, 
and he too worked strenuously in the cause of aboli- 
tion. He tried to make the people see that they who 




VBS LiicaaAviss : 



Part of first page of " The Liberator " 

had fought so valiantly against oppression ought not 
themselves to oppress others. How could a nation, 
he asked, which had written the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence still keep hundreds of thousands of human 
creatures in slavery? 

"Our fellow-countrymen in chains! 
Slaves, in a land of light and law! 
Slaves, crouching on the very plains 

Where rolled the storm of Freedom's war."* 

Many notable men early joined the ranks of the 
Abolitionists. Among these was Theodore Parker, 
one of Boston's leading ministers. Another was 

* Whittier: Expostulation. 



THE ABOLITIONISTS 95 

Wendell Phillips, the ''silver-tongued orator," who 
devoted thirty years of his life to the cause. It was 
he who said, '' If I am to love my country, it must be 
lovable; if I am to honor it, it must be worthy of 
respect." It required a great deal of courage in those 
days to come out in favor of abolition. In the first 
place there were many people in the North who 
profited in one way or another by slavery. Then 
there were a great many who thought that so long as 
they themselves did not keep slaves, they need not be 
concerned with what other people were doing. Just 
to say that one did not believe in slavery was easy 
enough, but to become an out-and-out Abolitionist 
was going much further. 

The Abolitionists cried out for emancipation. By 
this they meant that the slaves should be given their 
freedom whether they wanted it or not, and whether 
or not their owners wished to free them. Here was 
a startling proposition. People resented it without 
stopping to consider whether it was right or wrong. 
Theodore Parker found that even his fellow-ministers 
were refusing to recognize him. He wrote: "Here I 
am as much an outcast from society as though I were 
a convicted pirate." 

Abolitionist speakers were hissed and interrupted, 
and more than one of these reformers received bodily 
injury. Even in Boston, at a meeting at which 
Garrison was to speak, he was mobbed and dragged 
through the streets. He was saved from serious in- 



96 SECESSION 

jury only by the action of the mayor, who lodged him 

in jail. An eye-witness says of him: "The man 

walked with head erect, flashing eyes, like a martyr 

going to the stake, full of faith and manly hope." 

And this happened in that city of noble memories of 

Bunker Hill and the fight for freedom! 

It is not strange that in the South the Abolitionists 

were thoroughly hated. The statesmen of the North, 

too, had a good reason for not following 
State rights , a i i • • • t i i • 

the Abolitionists. It was the desire to 

preserve the union of the states at any cost. Ever 
since the Constitution had been adopted there had 
arisen many serious questions hinging upon the rela- 
tion of the United States to the individual states. 
How much of their rights had the states given up 
when they joined the Union? And could they, at any 
time, take back any of these rights? 

For instance, when a state claimed that a law of 
Congress was unfair, could it say: ''We refuse to obey 

this law"? To do this would be nullifi- 
NuUification . , . , , ht i i 

cation, because it would nullity the law; 

that is, it would make the law null or of no effect. Or, 

could the state go still further and say: "We cannot 

agree with our fellow states; so we will draw out of 

the Union and once more be an independent nation 

just as we were at the close of the Revolution"? To 

do this would be secession. 

There were many people in both the North and the 

South who believed in the right of nullification and of 



II 



NULLIFICATION 



97 



secession. In several instances states had declared 
that they had the right to nulHfy a law, and even to 
secede from the Union. One of the most important 
of these cases was over a tariff law which did not 
please some of the states. There was a heated debate 
in the Senate, in which Rob- 
ert Y. Hayne, of South Caro- 
lina, made a speech in support 
of nullification. He declared 
that the South was acting on 
a principle she had always held 
sacred, — ''resistance to unau- 
thorized taxation." Hayne was 
answered by Daniel Webster, 
who concluded with the memo- 
rable words: ''Liberty and 
Union, now and forever, one 
and inseparable!" In 1832 the 
state of South Carolina declared 
that it Avould nullify the tariff 
law and that if necessary it 
w^ould secede from the Union. 
But President Jackson was not 
moved by this threat. He 
warned the people of that state that if they dis- 
obeyed the Federal laws, he would use the army and 
navy to make them obey. Under the influence of 
Henry Clay the law was soon after slightly changed 
to please South Carolina. This, and the determined 




Statue of Daniel Webster, 
in New York 



98 SECESSION 

stand of the President, prevented the secession of 
that state. 

When, some years later, the cry of aboHtion was 
raised, the great southern leaders declared very posi- 
tively that the slaveholding states would secede rather 
than give up slavery. Among these leaders was John 
C. Calhoun, a South Carolinian, who had served two 
terms as vice-president and who for many years was a 
member of the United States Senate. Said he: "We 
love and cherish the Union; we remember with 
the kindest feelings our common origin, with pride 
our common achievements, and fondly anticipate 
the common greatness and glory that seem to await 
us; but origin, achievements, and anticipation of 
common greatness are to us as nothing, compared 
with this question. It is to us a vital question." 
Even some of the people of the North began to say 
that the free states ought to secede rather than 
to remain in a union with states that supported 
slavery. 

There was one feature of the Compromise of 1850 

that was particularly annoying to the antislavery 

people. This was a new Fugitive Slave 
Fugitive Slave , „, ^ 111 

, Law. 1 he owner 01 a runaway slave had 

the right to recover him, even if he 

escaped into a free state. Formerly, the owner had 

only to declare his ownership and the slave would be 

delivered over to him. But many states had passed 

laws making it harder for the owners to recover their 






FUGITIVE SLAVE LAW 



99 



runaway slaves. So the slave owners demanded help 
from the national government, and the law of 1850 
took the matter out of the hands of the states. 

Now a slave owner could claim any negro in any 
free state as his own. He could call upon United 
States officers to seize the negro and return him. As a 
result the North was soon overrun by man hunters. 
Many of these were not the owners of slaves, but only 
agents of owners. Some were even making a business 
of hunting down helpless negroes. Such a man had 
only to claim that any negro he met was a fugitive, 
taking his oath that this was 
so. The negro in question 
could say nothing in protest, 
even though as a free man 
he might have been for many 
years living a life of industry 
and honesty. 

All this incensed thousands 
of the people of the North. 
It was their turn to claim the 
right of nullification. They ^^^^^^^^^a^^^^^i^ 

began to talk of a "higher picture of runaway used in news- 
, ,, . J 1 . . 1 paper advertisements 

law, meaning that they 

should follow their consciences rather than a "wicked 
law" of Congress. The Fugitive Slave Law was not 
violated openly, but many Northerners managed to 
nullify it by helping the negroes to freedom. Thrill- 
ing stories are told of slaves who in one way or 




ICX> 



SECESSION 



IICE TWENTY FIVE CENTS. 



BOSTON SLAVE RIOT, 

T rt I A. Hi 



another made their escape, only to be recaptured 

under the Fugitive Slave Law. 

Anthony Burns was a negro whose case attracted 

much attention. Burns had fled from Virginia and 

was working as a waiter in a hotel in Boston. Here 

he was captured and imprisoned in the court house. 

This angered the people of Boston. They held excited 

meetings, and made an 
unsuccessful attempt to 
rescue the negro. Fi- 
nally, under guard of 
several hundred sol- 
diers, he was taken to 
the wharf and put on 
board ship. In spite of 
the threats of the people, 
he was carried back to 
slavery. It is interest- 
ing to know that in 
this instance enough 
money was subscribed 
by people in Massa- 
chusetts to buy Burns 
from his owner and to 
bring him back north. 
But not many of the 

recaptured fugitives fared so well. 

Great was the feeling against the law, and many 

were the people who sympathized with the fugitives. 




IBPORT or THE PANEUIL MALL MEETING THE 

^Plfe J?l8BSSf.'SS'^f;'„^,^|i; ESS 

COVHT Or^Mt tMl6*>l>(ATlON. 



BOSTON 

DOE AND COM»>< 
1854 



Cover of pamphlet on the Burns case 



"UNCLE TOM'S CABIN" lOi 

Thus it became more and more easy for slaves to make 

their escape and more and more difficult for their 

owners to retake them. It soon became a regular 

thing for certain people to work together to help the 

runaways. This they did in spite of the fact that they 

might be fined or imprisoned. If the escaped slave 

could but reach one of these sympathetic friends his 

chance of freedom was good. He would be passed on 

from one to another until finally he reached Canada. 

There the British laws against slavery protected him. 

It was all done so systematically and so secretly that 

the pursuers were usually baffled in their efforts. 

Hence these chains of sympathizers came to be known 

as the Underground Railway. 

There were thousands of people in the North who 

knew little about slavery and to whom it did not seem 

such a terrible thing. But even they 

I , ,. ^^ . "Uncle Tom's 

were soon stirred by readmg Uncle ^ , . „ 

Tom's Cabin," a book by Mrs. Harriet 
Beecher Stowe, published in 1852. She wrote that 
she hoped the book had "done justice to that nobility, 
generosity, and humanity, which in many cases 
characterizes individuals at the South." But the 
southern people protested that the book was exagger- 
ated and did not give a true picture of conditions in 
the South. Nevertheless, the story of Little Eva and 
Topsy, of Uncle Tom and his trials and his pathetic 
death, of the thrilling escape of Eliza and her babe 
and of her husband George, of Emiline and Cassy, and 



I02 SECESSION 

all the others, went to the hearts of multitudes. It 
was widely read, and did very much among the people 
of the North to increase the feeling of hatred toward 
slavery. Mrs. Stowe, at the end of her book, said: 
"And now, men and women of America, is this a 
thing to be trifled with, apologized for, and passed 
over in silence?" Thousands who had been indiffer- 
ent before, now became earnest Abolitionists. 

There followed quickly still other important events 

that drew the North and South farther apart. The 

Missouri Compromise had decreed that 

ansas- slavery should be prohibited in the terri- 

Nebraska Law -^ 

tory north of 36 30 . Yet when Kansas 

and Nebraska, both north of this line, were made into 
separate territories, the Missouri Compromise was re- 
pealed, and the people of each territory were allowed 
to decide for themselves whether or not they should 
prohibit slavery. Naturally this greatly displeased 
the antislavery people. 

In the struggle for the control of Kansas there was 
savage warfare that equaled in its horrors the raids 
of the Indians on the frontier settlements. Armed 
hordes of people, some for slavery and some against 
it, flocked into the territory, scattering destruction 
as they advanced. They burned homes, robbed the 
defenseless, and shot down those who attempted to 
oppose them. Scores of men and women were mur- 
dered in this time of strife before Kansas finally 
settled the burning question by voting against slavery. 



JOHN BROWN 103 

Another disturbing event was the Dred Scott 
decision. Dred Scott was a slave living in Missouri, 
a slave state. His owner took him to live 
in the free state of Illinois and later in the ^ig^.igiQjj 
free territory of Minnesota. Finally his 
master brought him back to Missouri. Scott claimed 
that he was no longer a slave, because he had lived in 
Illinois and Minnesota, where, under the law, slavery 
was prohibited. He took his case to the courts and 
finally to the Supreme Court of the United States. 
This court decided that he had no right even to bring 
a suit because he was not a citizen. It further 
declared that Congress had no right to decide the 
slavery question in the territories. This of course 
added to the indignation of the people of the free 
states. 

At about the same time the people of the South were 

angered by the expedition of John Brown. Brown 

was a New Englander. With his sons ^ , „ 

° . John Brown 

he went to Kansas while the attempt was 
being made to save that territory for freedom. He 
took a prominent part in the warfare of that time. 
Some people think that the excitement of those days 
drove him insane. However true this may be, he 
believed that if he could once arm some of the 
negroes, the slaves in large numbers would rally to 
his standard and strike for freedom. 

With this object in mind, Brown left Kansas and 
settled near Harpers Ferry, Virginia. In October, 



I04 



SECESSION 



1859, with a score of followers, he captured the 
arsenal at that place. It was a foolhardy proceeding. 
His little band was soon defeated, and he himself taken 
prisoner, tried, and hanged. While this expedition 
cost only a few lives, it roused the people of the South. 
They were sure that Brown had been prompted to his 




xJ^Kv, ^.^l-j^o-, ,«^ 

IB. 






Btiilding in which John Brown was captured 



deed by northern people, and they feared other 
attempts to incite the slaves to rebellion. 

These events brought the situation to the breaking 
point. But in the meantime the question of slavery 
had been making and unmaking political 
parties. It was in 1840 that the first 
antislavery party, later known as the 
Liberty party, was formed, but it never received more 
than a few votes. Both the Democrats and the 
Whigs tried to keep slavery out of politics. In 1848 
the Whigs elected the popular old soldier, General 



Slavery in 
politics 



SLAVERY IN POLITICS 105 

Zachary Taylor, to succeed President Polk. In 1852 
the Democrats elected Franklin Pierce. The events 
of the next four years so stirred the people that the 
various antislavery groups united under the name of 
the Republican party. Their candidate, John C. Fre- 
mont, although not elected, received a very large vote, 
and the Whig party went out of existence. Again the 
Democrats elected their candidate, James Buchanan. 

In 1858 the most distinguished man in the state of 
Illinois, if not in the entire nation, was Stephen A. 
Douglas. He had been in Congress for 
many years, and his brilliant oratory had j.^^ ^^ 
won for him the title of the Little Giant. 
The next year his term as senator would expire. No 
one doubted that, as the candidate of the Democrats, 
he would be overwhelmingly reelected. 

But from the ranks of the new Republican party 




The birthplace of Lincoln, in Kentucky 

there arose a man of the people, Abraham Lincoln. 
He had grown up in the rough pioneer life of the 



io6 SECESSION 

"backwoods." Circumstances were so hard that he 
could get little schooling. Books were scarce in the 
homes of the frontier, and the first vol- 
ume that Lincoln owned was a " Life of 
Lincoln 

Washington." It cost him three days' 
labor to acquire it. 

Lincoln early showed an ambition for learning and 
an ability to think clearly. In time he made a name 
for himself throughout his state as a clever lawyer. 
Now he was put forth by his party to contest the 
election of Douglas as senator from Illinois. 

When Lincoln was nominated he made one of the 
most important speeches ever delivered on the subject 
of slavery. It was then that he said: "A house 
divided against itself cannot stand. I believe this 
government cannot endure permanently half slave 
and half free. I do not expect the Union to be dis- 
solved. I do not expect the house to fall, but I do 
expect it will cease to be divided. It will become all 
one thing or all the other." Most of Lincoln's friends 
tried to persuade him that his chances vv^ould be better 
if he did not speak so harshly against slavery. But he 
insisted on saying what he believed was right and true. 

Lincoln challenged his opponent to a series of public 
debates. His challenge was accepted. The two 
Lincoln- candidates spoke in seven different places 

Douglas in the state. This Lincoln-Douglas debate 

debate j^^g gone into our history as the great- 

est event of its kind. People by tens of thousands 



ELECTION OF LINCOLN 107 

came from all directions to see for themselves this con- 
test between the Little Giant and the tall, rawboned 
country lawyer who had dared to dispute with him. 

Douglas defended his own views with wonderful 
skill. Lincoln kept pushing him more and more on 
the slavery issue. One of his thrusts was: *'I agree 
with Judge Douglas that the negro is not my equal in 
many respects. But in the right to eat bread, with- 
out the leave of anybody else, which his own hand 
earns, he is my equal, and the equal of Judge Doug- 
las, and the equal of every living man." When it 
finally came to a vote, it was found that Douglas was 
elected senator, but by a close count. 

Although Lincoln had been defeated, his speeches 
in this campaign made him one of the foremost Repub- 
licans in the country. When, in i860, the 

Republican convention met to nominate ,. 

^ ^ Lincoln 

a candidate for President, it soon settled 
upon Lincoln. In the Democratic party there was a 
split, and two different candidates were nominated. 
Still a fourth candidate was put in the field by men 
dissatisfied with the other three. Lincoln was elected. 
This was the signal for the slavery forces to take 
action. In December, i860, the state of South Caro- 
lina seceded, declaring that ''the union now subsisting 
between South Carolina and the other states, under 
the name of the United States of America, is hereby 
dissolved." At last the people of the United States 
were brought face to face with the question which 



io8 



SECESSION 



MERCURY 



EXTRA: 



had been argued throughout seventy-one years — the 
question of ''state sovereignty." States, before this, 

had claimed the right riwj . « w |^C;ff ftW 

to secede and to set VIlitKljIi:^ 1 Vil 

up separate and inde- 
pendent governments, 
but never before had 
a state declared that 
it actually had se- 
ceded. 

Here was the most 
vital issue that has 

ever con- 
The claim of ^ , , 

^u o xt. ironted 
the South 

the Arner- 
ican government. 
Here was a state claim- 
ing that it had already 
left the Union. Did 
mere claiming make it 
so? If the national 
government could 
force the state back, 
by warfare if need be, 

it would prove that Newspaper bulletin issued after the secession 

of South Carolina 

the state had made a 

false claim. On the other hand, if the state suc- 
ceeded against the forces of the federal government, 
its claim would have to be recognized. The atti- 



JPtuatd taumioMHtfy at 1.15 o^ctock, P. »%, Beeember 
SO/A, I860. 

Mt ORDIHAJVCE 

To dUmIrt lh» CMon »WiM«n llu Stale nf Houlh Carolina tout 
atker SUtlet unUed with her muter Ihe compact rtUUIed << 7^ 
CatulUutUm iit the VwUed Statet of .Imertvu." 



Au Ike OnSlmaca idvpUd b/ qj in ConrMtioB, od ilia Iwul; lUrd <Uj of iU;, is Iks 
7«a/«fovLot4 cot tbouno4. Mreo boodfed uidcighty-«igbl, «ber«bj l^e CowUtutioo of Ibe 
VaiUi Stales of Amtric* w%a lAtified, ud also, ail Aou vid parta of AcU of iba Geoefal 
AaaemUf of Ula Slata, tvitjivg amaDdmeou cf the aajd Constitslioo, an beraby lepealed ; 
tAd liai tb< aaloa oow aal»iitiii( beti««eo Sootb Caroliua ami olber dtal«a. Muiu tba dana of 
•'Thfi Coiicd St^laa of Amarte,* b btnbj diaaohed. 



UNION 

DISSOIVGD! 



CLAIM OF THE SOUTH 109 

tude of the state was: We are a separate nation; 
if you attack us you are waging war on a neighbor. 
The attitude of the federal government was: You 
are a group of people in rebellion; cease to rebel or 
w^e must wage war upon you as rebels. 

The next three months were perhaps the most criti- 
cal in our history. Twenty-eight years before, when 
South Carolina threatened secession, President Jack- 
son took determined action. It might have been ex- 
pected now that President Buchanan would do the 
same thing and bring South Carolina promptly to 
terms. But he did not. He was a Democrat, and 
in March w^as to be succeeded by a Republican Presi- 
dent. It was hard to tell just what the people of the 
North would want their President to do. How far 
would they support him if he took action to reduce 
South Carolina to submission? Even many people 
who had been bitter Abolitionists were now frightened 
by the turn in events. Among these was Horace 
Greeley, the editor of the New York ''Tribune." He 
said: " If the Cotton States shall decide that they can 
do better out of the Union than in it, we insist on 
letting them go in peace." 

When many of the Republican leaders were talking 

in this way, it is not to be wondered that Buchanan, 

a Democrat, should be perplexed as to 

what should be done. Indeed it seemed ^ o^ ^ 

ate States 

to be no longer a question of Democrat or 
Republican. Many men of both parties were taking 



no SECESSION 

a firm stand for the Union. Many others were looking 
at the problem much as Greeley did. In the mean- 
time the South took advantage of this condition of 
affairs. By February, 1861, six other states had fol- 
lowed the example of South Carolina. The seven pro- 
ceeded to unite under the name of the Confederate 
States of America. In those states there were several 
forts and arsenals belonging to the United States 
government. By seizing some of these, the Confed- 
erates got possession of large quantities of supplies 
and ammunition, so that if war came they would be 
prepared. 

As the days went on, the country saw that much 
depended upon the incoming President. People 
looked forward anxiously to see what he would do. 
Slavery was at the root of the trouble, yet Lincoln saw 
very clearly that the question now was not ' ' Shall we 
abolish slavery?" but ''Have any states the right to 
secede?" Lincoln kept assuring the people that he 
wished no war and no bloodshed. Nevertheless he 
showed that he would not compromise on the question 
of secession. 

Not until he was inaugurated could Lincoln speak 
with authority. On March 4, 1861, he became 
President. His inaugural address set the 
^ " ^ issue squarely before the people. ''The 
Union of these states is perpetual," said 
he. "No state upon its own mere motion can law- 
fully get out of the Union I shall take care, 



INAUGURATION OF LINCOLN lii 

as the Constitution itself expressly enjoins upon me, 
that the laws of the Union be faithfully executed in all 
the states." He concluded with: "We are not ene- 
mies, but friends. We must not be enemies. Though 
passion may have strained, it must not break our 
bonds of affection." 

Part of Lincoln's inaugural address 

During the next few weeks Lincoln waited patiently 
for events to shape themselves. He saw that the 
national government would have a great advantage 
if the South made the first move in the game of war- 
fare. His thought evidently was, ''Let the South fire 
the first gun and thus put herself before the world as 
rebelling against the federal government." And so 
he waited. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

There were many different opinions about the right 
and wrong of slavery, and in time this question became 
the most important matter upon which political parties 
differed. 

In the beginning, when the Constitution was 
adopted, certain compromises were made, and it was 
supposed that the slavery question was settled. The 
states were about evenly divided between slave states 




C I F I C 



(II2) 



DISPUTE OVER SLAVERY 113 

and free states, and for many years, as new states 
came in, this balance was carefully kept. 

From time to time several laws concerning the 
slavery question were passed. Among these were the 
Missouri Compromise, the Compromise of 1850, and 
the Kansas-Nebraska Law. 

In spite of the attempts to satisfy both sides, the feel- 
ing of antagonism between the northern free states and 
the southern slave states kept steadily growing. This 
brought forward another question: Could a state go 
out of the Union by its own will, just as it had entered 
by its own will? The right to do so was called the 
right of secession. As the strife between the slavery 
and antislavery people became more and more bitter, 
many on both sides claimed this right for their states. 

Finally, when Abraham Lincoln was elected Presi- 
dent, in i860, the South took it as a signal for action. 
Seven of the states seceded and formed the Con- 
federate States of America. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

By the Missouri Compromise, 1820, Missouri was admitted 
as a slave state, while slavery was prohibited in all the rest of 
the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30'. 

By the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted into 
the Union as a free state, and Utah and New Mexico were 
allowed to decide for themselves whether they would be free or 
slave. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Law, 1854, repealed the Missouri 
Compromise and allowed the territories to decide the slave 
question for themselves. 

The Dred Scott Decision, 1857, permitted slavery in all the 
territories. 



114 SECESSION 

Bibliography 

Lincoln. — Baldwin: Abraham Lincoln. 

Brooks: True Story of Abraham Lincoln. 

Coffin: Abraham Lincoln. 

Moores: Life of Abraham Lincoln. 

Nicolay: Boys' Life of Abraham Lincoln. 

Sparks: Men who made the Nation. 

Tarbell: He knew Lincoln. 

Tarbell: Counsel for the Defense. 
Webster. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 




" Seized the bridle of Lee's horse " 



CHAPTER VI 

THE CIVIL WAR 

. We do not have to go far into the history of England 

to learn that Englishmen have always been very 

jealous of their rights. The English have 

^1 ^ , , • 1 • The spirit of 

a saying that every man s house is his , c th 

castle. For centuries the men of England 

have stood firm in defense of these "castles," however 

magnificent or however humble they may be. So 

when Englishmen came across the Atlantic and settled 

in America they brought with them this spirit of 

insisting upon their rights. We have seen how, as 

colonists, they defended their rights even against their 

own English government. We have learned how they 

resisted the authority of the mother country, and 

finally gained their independence. 

It was this spirit that prevailed once again in the 

days of 1861. Both North and South believed that 

they were right. The North insisted that the nation 

should remain united. The South insisted that it 

had the right to withdraw in peace from the Union. 

The people of the South were prompted by the same 

spirit that had led their forefathers to throw off the 

authority of England. They felt that they must 

"5 



Ii6 THE CIVIL WAR 

throw off the authority of the United States. That 
authority was, they believed, being used against them. 
So the Confederate States declared that if the United 
States should invade their territory, it would be an act 
of war by one nation upon another. Thus they hoped 
to be left to go their separate way in peace. 

This hope was not without foundation. In the 
first place they had reason to believe that the Con- 
federacy would grow in area. Other 

*u e ^u states would come over to their side, 
the South 

Again, they expected that the countries 
of Europe would speedily recognize the Confederate 
States as an independent nation. England and her 
neighbors, it was supposed, would be glad to see the 
growing American union shattered and replaced by 
a number of smaller countries. Thus it might be 
easy for European nations to gain more territory in 
America. Moreover, the Europeans profited by trade 
with the South. Especially, they needed the cotton 
that was produced there. So they would not want 
their supply of it cut off or their trade interfered with 
in other ways by a war. In the third place, the 
Southerners counted on the fact that they had many 
friends in the North. They took it for granted that 
the northern people in general did not care whether 
or not the South set up for itself. At any rate, they 
could not believe that these people cared enough for 
the Union to go to war to preserve it. 

But the hopes of the South were not all to be 






PLANS OF THE SOUTH 117 

realized. Some states that they had expected would 
secede disappointed them. Foreign nations proved 
to be in no hurry to take sides. And finally, the 
Confederates were much mistaken in the attitude of 
the North. They had forgotten that their northern 
brothers had the same independent spirit that they 
had. When once aroused, the northern folk could be 
just as determined as they themselves were. 

At first, success seemed sure and easy. The seceded 
states acted on the theory that all forts, arsenals, 
stores, ammunition, and other equipment for war, on 
land or on sea, that were to be found within their 
states belonged by right to them. So they proceeded 
to take possession. In nearly every case this was easy 
enough, because most of the men in command were 
Southerners and in sympathy with the Confederate 
movement. 

But there was one ofBcer who did not take this view. 

Major Anderson had command of the United States 

forces in the harbor of Charleston, South 

. Fort Sumter 

Carohna. He was a Kentuckian by 

birth, and his wife was a Georgian; yet he felt that 

so long as he was in the army of the United States he 

must defend his command against any attack by the 

South. Anderson's force of less than one hundred 

men occupied Fort Sumter, located on an island in the 

harbor. The governor of South Carolina insisted 

that no United States troops should be intrenched in 

this way within his state. However, he hesitated to 



116 



THE CIVIL WAR 



act. He called upon the Confederate government to 
advise him. President Davis of the Confederacy and 
his cabinet were at Montgomery, Alabama, their cap- 
ital. They discussed the governor's request very seri- 
ously. One of them said: ''The firing upon that fort 
will inaugurate a civil war greater than any the world 
has yet seen; and I do not feel competent to advise 
you." Thus they hesitated. But the impatient 
southern people would not let them delay for long. 

The Confederates made many attempts to induce 
Anderson to withdraw his troops peaceably. Then 
they served notice upon him that they would shell the 
fort. This they could do from the neighboring harbor 
forts which they already held. In the meantime 
President Lincoln was trying to send reenforcements 
and supplies to the beleaguered garrison, but without 
success. Anderson and his men were soon subjected 







Part of Fort Sixmter after the bombardment 



to a hot fire from powerful guns in forts so distant that 
the guns of Fort Sumter could not reach them in 



BEGINNING OF THE WAR 119 

return. For two days the bombardment continued. 
Time after time the shells set fire to the barracks. 
The magazines were threatened. The gallant de- 
fenders were nearly suffocated in flame and smoke. 
Finally, when ammunition ran low and food gave out, 
Major Anderson surrendered. 

At last had occurred the event for which President 
Lincoln, even against the advice of his counselors, had 
so patiently been waiting. The American 
flag had been fired upon. War had ^^^ ^^.^^ 
begun; but it was the Confederacy that 
had fired the first shot. How vain had been the hope 
of the South that the people of the North would not 
care if it seceded! The news of Sumter sent a thrill 
through the nation. Immediately Lincoln issued a 
proclamation calling for 75,000 troops. The response 
was prompt and eager. 

Now that war was fairly on, the hope and enthu- 
siasm of the southern people ran high. They were 

confident of early victory. First of all, 
, , , 1 1 r Confidence of 

they had even more reason than bet ore ^^^ south 

to expect that several other states would 
join the seven already in the Confederacy. Secondly, 
they were now more hopeful that European nations 
would interfere and recognize their independence. 
They expected to secure just such aid as France had 
given the struggling colonists in the days of the Revo- 
lution. Finally, the Confederates had some advan- 
tages from the military standpoint. 



I20 THE CIVIL WAR 

For many years they had been looking forward to 
war and so were better prepared than was the North. 
The leading men of the South led outdoor lives and 
were fond of sport and the handling of arms. Many 
of them were army officers. They were high-spirited 
and ready to match their strength with their north- 
ern rivals. Again, the slaves could be left at home to 
carry on the work there, while their masters went to 
battle. 

The Confederates had a further advantage in being 
on the defensive. They were not seeking conquest, 
but only asking to be let alone. Hence, all they had 
to do was to resist invasion. This meant that they 
would not have to travel far to battle. They would 
not have to transport armies and supplies great 
distances into the enemy's country. Best of all, they 
would be stirred by the spirit that fires men when 
they are defending their homes and families. 

We shall now see how the South fared along each 
of these three lines. 

The first hope of the Confederacy was that it might 
increase its territory. It comprised seven coast states : 
The first hope Texas, Louisiana, Mississippi, Alabama, 
— increased and Florida, on the Gulf; and Georgia 
territory ^^^ South Carolina on the Atlantic. 

Several other southern states, however, were in sym- 
pathy with the Confederacy. Following the lead of 
Virginia, the three states immediately north of the 
Confederacy — Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Caro- 



FOUR MORE STATES SECEDE 



121 



lina — promptly joined it. Richmond, Virginia, was 
later made the capital of the Confederacy. The gain- 
ing of Virginia was a triumph for the South, for with- 
out it the war would undoubtedly have ended much 




The home of Jefferson Davis, the Confederate president, in Richmond 



earlier than it did. But not all of that state was will- 
ing to secede from the Union. The people in the 
western part did some seceding on their own account. 
In order to remain true to the Federal government, 
they brought about the division of Virginia into two 
states. In 1863 West Virginia was admitted to the 
Union as a separate state. 



122 THE CIVIL WAR 

Missouri, Kentucky, and Maryland, to the north of 
these four, were known as the Border States. For 
several trying weeks it was a question whether the 
Confederacy would gain them. But the South was 
doomed to disappointment. Eventually all three 
were saved to the Union, not without considerable 
strategy, however, and only after armed force had 
taken a part in settling the question. Moreover, as 
the war progressed, although the cry of the Con- 
federacy was ''On to Washington," its armies were 
never able to get into that city. So the Confederacy 
was limited to eleven states, and it is their fortunes 
that we are now to follow. 

The second hope of the Confederacy was that it 

might secure the aid of foreign nations, especially 

England. It was to England's interest 

, . .J to trade with the South, where she bought 
— foreign aid ' ^ 

cotton for use in her mills. So the Con- 
federates sent their agents to England to induce that 
government to aid them. But they met with no 
success. The United States also had its friends at 
work there, explaining the position of the North and 
enlisting the sympathy of the British people. They 
were able to convince the English that, although there 
was much talk about "state rights," the chief issue 
of the war was slavery. Years before this, England 
had abolished slavery at home and in all her colo- 
nies. She could not now bring herself to take sides 
with the slaveholding South. 



THE TRENT AFFAIR 



123 



There was one incident, however, that very nearly 
turned the EngHsh against the United States. Two 
Confederate agents — Mason and Slidell 
— started for England on board a British ^ . 
steamer, the Trent. Hearing of this, 
Captain Wilkes, of the Union navy, boarded the Trent, 
captured the two commissioners, and held them as 
prisoners. The people of the North were elated. But 
the clear-headed President saw that a serious mistake 
had been made. He did not forget that in 1812, we 
had gone to war with England for doing much the same 
thing that Wilkes had just done. So he gave up the 
prisoners and let them go on their errand. 

It was one thing for the South to talk about sup- 
plying England with cotton, and quite another to 

carry on commerce with that or any other 

rr^i XT' 10 1* 1 The blockade 

country. Ihe United States did not 

propose to let the Confederacy have her own way in 
this matter. Fort Sumter had surrendered on April 
14. Before that month was over the United States 
had declared the entire Confederate coast to be 
blockaded. This meant that the government under- 
took to prevent all vessels from entering or leaving 
any southern port. As the coast line was some two 
thousand miles in length, it was a huge undertaking. 
The blockade having been declared, it was of prime 
importance to the Union that it should be maintained. 
Much to the surprise of the Confederates, they soon 
found themselves thoroughly hemmed in from the sea 



124 THE CIVIL WAR 

front. Despite the advantage of so long a coast line 
the South was seriously handicapped. It was an 
agricultural region. To secure manufactured articles 
it had depended chiefly upon trading its crops for 
them. It had comparatively few machine-shops, 
factories, and foundries. Thus it was almost helpless 
as compared with the North, whose mechanics were 
many and just now were very busy in providing the 
tools of warfare. The North soon had hundreds of 
vessels impressed into service. They watched the 
southern ports with cat-like shrewdness, ready to 







A blockade runner 

pounce on any Confederate or foreign ship that should 
try to leave or to enter. 

The Confederates, however, were by no means idle. 
On many occasions vessels called '' blockade runners " 
The Monitor managed to elude the blockading ships, 
and the Before the war had been in operation a 

Merrimac y^^j- they struck the enemy a blow that 
nearly broke up the whole blockade. This happened 
at Norfolk, Virginia. Five northern frigates were in 



THE MONITOR AND THE MERRIMAC 125 

command of the harbor. On the morning of March 
8, 1862, the crews of these ships were startled by- 
seeing before them a new and strange sort of craft. 
It lay low in the water. It had neither sails nor 
masts. It was propelled only by steam. In fact, it 
was the first ship in any navy to depend upon steam 
as its only motive power. 

The alarm of the northern crews was increased 
when they opened fire. Broadside after broadside hit 
the curious battleship without the slightest effect. 
The cannon balls glanced harmlessly off its sides. The 
Confederates had cunningly covered their doughty 
defender with plates of iron. But worse was yet to 
follow. The Merrimac, for that was the name of the 
ship, turned, showing a sharp ram projecting from her 
bow, plunged into the nearest frigate, the Cumberland, 
and soon sent it to the bottom. Directing her atten- 
tion to the others, she set fire to one and drove the 
remaining three aground. When the North heard the 
news from Norfolk it was dismayed and panic-stricken. 
Nothing, it seemed, could prevent the Merrimac from 
coming on up the Potomac and bombarding the capi- 
tal, or from ending the blockade of southern ports. 

But the surprises were not to be all on one side. 
On the morning after her startling victory the Merri- 
mac sallied forth to complete her work of destruction. 
But this time it was her turn to wonder. In front of 
her was a craft even more curious than herself. A 
fourth her own size, with a large round turret on a low 



126 THE CIVIL WAR 

flat body, it looked, as was said, like ''a cheese-box 
on a raft." It too was ironclad. But it was speedier 



r 










The Monitor and the Merrimac 



than the Merrimac, and drew much less water. Soon 
it was cavorting around her, running through shallow 
water that the Merrimac could not venture into, and 
firing as it pleased upon her iron sides. 

The ingenious little boat was named the Monitor. 
It had been designed by John Ericsson, and hurriedly 
built in Brooklyn. It had arrived at Norfolk just in 
the nick of time. Neither of these ironclads could do 
much harm to the other, but the Monitor could hold 
the Merrimac in check. The fears of the North were 
quieted. From this time on the blockading squadrons 
hemmed in the Confederacy more and more. Soon 
her commerce was very nearly at a standstill. 

The third hope of the Confederacy was that she 
might resist invasion. Victory might even lead her 



"ON TO RICHMOND'' 127 

to march into the North, there to dictate terms of 
peace. While operations had been going on at sea, the 
armies of both sides had been gathering Third hope — 
in large numbers. They were recruited to resist 
from every walk in life. There were ^^^^^^°° 
farmers, clerks, college students, mechanics, trades- 
men, — all very eager and enthusiastic, but entirely 
ignorant of warfare. President Lincoln said that one 
army was ''as green as the other." The Confeder- 
ates, however, had begun a few months earlier to put 
their army into shape. In both camps many weeks 
had to be spent in training and drilling the men, which 
made the people the more impatient to see actual war 
begin. Both North and South wanted news of some 
big battle which should prove that its side was going 
to make short work of the other. 

The Confederacy, now that it included Virginia, 
proceeded to defend this, its most northern state, from 
attack. In July, 1861, the Confederates, 

with some 30,000 men, were attacked by „. , 

^ ' ' J Richmond " 

the Union army under General McDowell, 
at a little stream called Bull Run, less than fifty 
miles from Washington. General Beauregard was in 
command, and was about to suffer defeat when he 
was joined by forces under General J. E. Johnston. 
Together they retook the positions that had been lost, 
routed the Federal troops, and started them in a 
ragged retreat back toward Washington. The Con- 
federates, though better trained than the new recruits 



128 



THE CIVIL WAR 



of the Union army, were yet not enough better off to 
be able to follow them far. So both armies rested for 
a while. 

General McClellan, succeeding McDowell, put his 
troops through a season of strenuous drilling, getting 
them ready to renew the attack. There was plenty of 
fighting in West Virginia and in Tennessee, but no 
great battle occurred in the East until the spring 
of 1862. Then McClellan again started the Union 
armies for Richmond. This time he went part way 

by boat and began by 
laying siege to York- 
town. He intended to 
work his way from 
there up to the Con- 
federate capital. The 
map will show why 
the operations in this region are called the Peninsular 
campaign. 

Johnston was in command at Yorktown. In order 
to gain time he kept IMcClellan outside the city for a 
month. During the siege the Confederates played a 
successful trick upon the Yankees. They cut logs into 
the shape of cannon, painted them black, and mounted 
them in their intrenchments. These "quaker guns," 
as they were called, completely deceived the enemy. 
When Johnston could hold out no longer, he re- 
treated toward Richmond. McClellan followed. At 
Fair Oaks the two armies met in battle, and the 




GENERAL LEE 



129 



General Lee 



Confederate commander, General Johnston, was 
wounded. 

Johnston was succeeded by General Robert E. Lee, 
who soon became the leading military spirit of the 
South. Indeed, his name has gone into 
history as one of the greatest commanders 
that the world has known. Lee was a great general, 
planning his campaigns 
with wonderful skill. He 
had, too, a soldier's love 
for getting into the thick 
of the fight. 

Lee's disregard of dan- 
ger was a constant source 
of anxiety to his men. 
The story is told, that in 
one of his battles, late in 
the war, he galloped to 
the head of a column of 
Texas soldiers and gave 
the order to charge. 
But not a soldier would 
budge while their general 
was thus endangered. m\ 

gray-haired sergeant seized the bridle of Lee's horse 
and led its rider out of danger. Then with a rush 
and a will the charge was made. 

Lee's soldiers bore him a love that amounted to 
worship. ''Mars Robert," they affectionately called 




S^S4 



Statue of General Robert E. Lee 



I30 THE CIVIL WAR 

him. Even his horse was sacred to them. His sword 
they reverenced : 

''Forth from its scabbard, high in air 

Beneath Virginia's sky — 
And they who saw it gleaming there, 
And knew who bore it, knelt to swear 
That where that sword led they would dare 

To follow — and to die."* 

Another Southern general who was making his 
name a word to strike terror in the hearts of the Fed- 
eral soldiers, was Thomas J. Jackson. It 
?^^^'^^ was in the battle of Bull Run that his 

Jackson 

brigade held its ground against the ter- 
rible onslaught of the enemy, and an officer in admira- 
tion exclaimed: ''See where Jackson stands like a 
stone wall." So Stonewall Jackson he was often 
called. 

Just now Jackson was operating in the Shenandoah 
valley, in Western Virginia. He pushed the Union 
forces, under General Banks, back to the Potomac, 
and persistently worried Washington. The Federal 
government, in its alarm, kept a large army about 
the capital to defend it from the unknown dangers 
that threatened. Thus McClellan was deprived of 
the reenforcements which he thought were necessary 
to the work of his campaign. 

While McClellan waited, Jackson suddenly joined 
Lee. Together they attacked McClellan's army in the 

* Father Ryan: The Sword of Robert Lee. 



FROM BULL RUN TO FREDERICKSBURG 131 

neighborhood of Richmond. Here occurred several 

bloody clashes, known as the Seven 

Days' Battles, in which thousands of men „^If,^ ^^^ 
■' , Battles 

were lost to each side. Lee captured 

many prisoners and inflicted as much injury upon the 

enemy as he himself suffered. 

Lee next tried to turn the tide of war northward. 
He thought that the people of Maryland were in 

sympathy with the South, and that they 

ij u 1 u- J !-• 01 Antietam and 

would help him and his army. So he ^ ^ . , ^ 

^ -^ Fredencksburg 

decided to cross the Potomac well above 
Washington, and carry the war into the North, hoping 
to circle back and surround the Federal capital. At 
the beginning all was favorable to him. On the way 
to the Potomac he met and defeated General Pope at 
the second battle of Bull Run. Then he crossed into 
Maryland and was followed by McClellan, who 
defeated him in the battle of Antietam, one of the 
most terrible clashes of the war. Lee retreated into 
Virginia, and later was attacked at Fredericksburg. 
He held his own, and compelled the Federal army to 
fall back toward their capital. This was in December. 
Thus, at the close of the year 1862, the Confederates 
were as well intrenched in Virginia as they had been 
at the outbreak of the war more than a year and a 
half before. 

While this was going on in the East, the Confeder- 
acy was struggling to maintain its western and 
northern limits. It wished very much to hold the 



132 



THE CIVIL WAR 



Mississippi River. If that should fall into Union 

hands, the South, thus cut in two, would be badly 

crippled. But the Confederates had to 

ap ure meet many assaults on this ^reat water- 

New Orleans -^ ° 

way. Near the mouth of the river was 

the large and important city of New Orleans, strongly 

protected against capture. Two heavy chains lay 

stretched across the river below the city. Just above 








The Farragut Monument, in New York 

them were two forts whose cross-fire could be trained 
upon any boats passing up the river. x\bove the forts 



CAPTURE OF NEW ORLEANS . 133 

was a strong fleet, which included two ironclads. It 
seemed as if the city were impregnable and that the 
Federals would be foolhardy indeed to attempt to run 
up the river. 

But there were daring men at hand to undertake 
this very task. Captain Farragut, with a fleet of 
fifty vessels, determined to accomplish it. He man- 
aged to get many of his ships up the river to a point 
near the chains. Then he dispatched two gunboats, 
which, stealing up at dark, succeeded in breaking the 
chains. There followed, during the calm, starlit night, 
a sudden rush past the two forts. The forts thundered 
their bolts upon the daring fleet. Boats loaded with 
pitch-pine were set afire and floated toward them. 
The Confederate vessels from up the river bore down 
upon them and engaged them in close combat. The 
battle raged until morning. Then, in spite of the 
damage done to the Union fleet, it was seen sailing up 
the river, having victoriously passed the forts. The 
fall of the city was inevitable. General Butler, with 
a large army, followed Farragut into New Orleans, 
taking possession on May i, 1862. 

The Confederates were able to hold out a little 

longer in the northwestern part of their territory. 

They had tried to keep their forces in the 

field in Kentucky and Tennessee, but were °^ !^ ^^^^ 
•' ^ and Donelson 

driven back. Halleck, the Union general, 
early in 1862, centered his attack upon two of their im- 
portant strongholds, Fort Henry and Fort Donelson. 



134 THE CIVIL WAR 

Although one of these was on the Tennessee River and 
the other on the Cumberland, they were but twelve 
miles apart. Thus the line of defense between them 
was a very important gateway to the South. 

General Grant, aided by Commodore Foote's gun- 
boats, was sent to capture the forts. Fort Henry was 
easily taken, but the battle around Donelson raged 
fiercely for three days. Finally the Confederates 
asked for terms of surrender, to which Grant made his 
famous reply: ''No terms except unconditional and 
immediate surrender can be accepted." On February 
1 6 the fort yielded, and thousands of prisoners were 
surrendered. The South had suffered its first great 
defeat. 

At Shiloh, farther up the Tennessee River, Grant 
held his own in a fierce two days' battle, where 
25,000 men were lost to the two armies. Among these 
was General A. S. Johnston, who had commanded the 
Confederate forces in the West. The next day Com- 
modore Foote captured Island No. 10, in the Mis- 
sissippi River. This opened the river down to the 
Confederate stronghold at Vicksburg. Thus, in the 
West the close of 1862 found the South still undi- 
vided at the Mississippi. That is, it held possession 
of the river at Vicksburg and for some distance south. 

On the first day of 1863 President Lincoln took 
action in a matter that he had long been considering. 
From the beginning of the war he had repeatedly 
asserted that it was waged to save the Union. 



EMANCIPATION PROCLAMATION 135 

Slavery was not the issue. But he came to see that 

slavery was a great aid to the South in carrying on 

the war. Hence, to free the slaves would 

be a war measure that would help to de- J^^^^^^^J^^ 

^ ^ Proclamation 

feat the South. So he issued an Emanci- 
pation Proclamation. In it he declared that all the 
slaves — more than three millions in number — in 
all the states of the Confederacy should be forever 
free. 

The Southerners were not at all alarmed by this 
proclamation. Instead, they ridiculed it. In scorn 
they declared that the mere word of the 

President of the United States, whose ,^ ^^ ,^ 

' the North 

authority they did not recognize, could 
not set free their slaves. They became all the more 
intense in their determination to drive the Union 
armies out of their territory and even to carry the 
war into the enemy's country. In May Lee was 
attacked by the Federals, now under General Hooker, 
at Chancellorsville, but he drove them back terribly 
defeated. Then he started for the North, determined 
not to stop until he had dictated terms of peace in 
Philadelphia or New York. 

It is no wonder that at this springtime of 1863, the 
Confederates believed that their hopes were about to 
be realized. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

There was only one way to disprove the right of 
secession. When a state claimed that it had seceded, 



136 



THE CIVIL WAR 



the Federal government 
the claim only by force, 



could successfully dispute 
— only by conquering the 
people that resisted 
its authority. 

The secession of 
the seven Confederate 
states led to war. 
The South began the 
fighting by taking 
Fort Sumter, on April 
14, 1861, claiming that 
it was part of her ter- 
ritory and that the 
United States troops 
had no right there. 
This was followed by 
four years of bitter, 
bloody, civil strife. 

The hopes of the 
Confederate States 
ran high. Four other 
states joined them; they expected European nations 
to help them ; and they were sure they could keep the 
Union armies out of their territory. But they were 
to be disappointed. The nations of the world refused 
to recognize them, and remained neutral throughout 
the war. Actual warfare took place almost entirely 
on southern soil, and for the Southerners it became a 
fight for the defense of their homes. 

The Union soon had the southern ports closely 
blockaded; and the Monitor was able to withstand 
the attacks of the Merrimac, in the first battle be- 
tween ironclad vessels. 




The vicinity of Washington 



FROM 1861 TO 1863 



137 



On land the fortunes of the war varied. In the East 
the Confederate cry was, '* On to Washington," and the 
Confederate armies seriously threatened that city more 
than once. The Union cry was, ''On to Richmond," 
and the Federals fought steadily through northern 
\'irginia, but were stubbornly repulsed. The year 
1863 found the two sides practically at a deadlock 
between the two capitals. 

In the meantime, however, the Confederacy had 
suffered in the West. It had lost New^ Orleans and 
much of the Mississippi River. But it still held 
Vicksburg, the key that the Federals must gain if they 
were to unlock the river to Northern control. 




The Confederate states 



138 THE CIVIL WAR 

On January i, 1863, President Lincoln issued the 
Emancipation Proclamation, declaring that all the 
slaves in the Confederate states were forever free. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

The Civil War, 1861-1865, was caused by slavery, and more 
directly by the secession of the southern states. 

In the Civil War the plan of the North was to blockade 
southern ports and thus cut off supplies from the Confederacy; 
to open up the Mississippi and thus divide the Confederacy; and 
to capture Richmond, the seat of the Confederate government. 

The Monitor'Merrimac engagement, 1862, prevented the 
Confederates from breaking up the blockade of the southern 
ports. 

By Lincoln*s Emancipation Proclamation, January i, 1863, 
the slaves in the seceding states were declared free. 

Bibliography 

General. — Abbott: Battle Fields of '61. 

Blaisdell : Stories of the Civil War. 

Coffin: Boys of '6i. 

Page: Two Little Confederates. 




" Finally they clashed at Gettysburg " 



CHAPTER VII 
THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

Let us pause for a brief review of the situation, 

especially as it looked to the people of the North. 

When the war opened, in the early part 

of 1861, they little doubted that it would . ® ^\^^^^ 
' -^ ^ in review 

soon be settled — in a few months at the 
most. They thought of the South, not at all as a 
powerful nation, but merely as a set of rebels. x\ll 
that was needed, they believed, was to march an 
army or two into the Southland and bring the Con- 
federacy to terms. Thus they would quickly put an 
end to the rebellion. But, as we have seen, they were 
soon to learn that it was not to be any such easy 
matter. Indeed, it was presently evident that the 
struggle would be fierce and determined. It might 
last for years. Again and again a northern army 
was sent against the Confederate capital, only to be 
thrown back with great loss. The North was thor- 
oughly discouraged. 

Home after home was' being made desolate. The 
fathers and older brothers were giving their lives at 
the front. Sturdy small boys, in their efforts to fill 
vacant places, grew into sudden manhood. Day by 

139 



I40 



THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 



day the women waited at home, doing their part in 
the defense of the Union. With patient hands they 
made roll after roll of bandages. Their choicest 
linens and even the table damasks were sacrificed to 
bind up the wounds of the soldiers. Those who lived 
near the hospitals were con- 
stantly busy making jellies and 
broths for the sick. After each 
battle, with eyes that could 
scarcely read through blinding 
tears, these suffering women 
searched the columns of the 
missing, dreading to find there- 
in the name of some dear one. 
And yet the war dragged on. 

It was not only the defeats in 
the field that caused the Union 
leaders anxiety. There were 
many people even in the North 
who did not believe in the war. 
They really sympathized w^ith 
the South and rejoiced when 
the Federal arms met reverses. These people were 
called Copperheads, — the copperhead is a venomous 
snake, — and some of them wore as a badge the head 
of the Goddess of Liberty cut out of an old-fashioned 
copper cent. And it was not only sympathy with 
the enemy that the government feared. Plots to 
give them real help were laid in the midst of the 




c£^ 



A Union soldier 



DRAFT RIOTS 141 

Union states. Then there was Canada at the north. 

It might be easy for Confederate aUies to make raids 

into the United States from across the northern 

boundary and cause much damage. 

As the war progressed, another difficulty faced the 

people of the North. The first call for troops had 

been answered heartily by enthusiastic ^ ., . , 

-' •' Draft riots 

thousands. But as more and more men 
were needed, not enough volunteered, and it became 
necessary to get them by conscription, or draft. 
That is, instead of asking men to serve, the govern- 
ment ordered them into service whether they wanted 
to go or not. This angered a great many, and in 
some cases they fought against the draft. The most 
serious of these draft riots occurred in New York in 
the summer of 1863, where much property was 
damaged and several hundred lives were lost. 

More than all this, the war was costing a million 
dollars a day. What was far worse, it was costing 
the lives of thousands of the best men of the nation. 
So, after every defeat, people would ask: ''What is 
the use of wasting more men and more money in a 
losing fight? Why not let the South go its own way 
and let us have peace?" 

Despite all discouragements, the patient and 
masterful Lincoln, and some of the other statesmen 
about him, kept up hope. If the people would only 
remain loyal and support the war, there were many 
reasons why a united North ought surely to win in 



142 



THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 



the end. Cruel and costly as the war was to both 
sides, the North was standing it much better than was 
the South. Its population was between two and 
three times that of the South, and thus the cost in 
men and money was shared by a much larger number 
of people. 

In their homes the southern people were feeling the 
effects of the war even more keenly than were the 
Effects of the People of the North. Nearly all their 
war on the fighting men were now under arms and 
South away from home. They, too, had to 

draft men into service. Day by day the blockade 
was tightening its grasp around 
the seacoast and cutting off 
their imports. So far, the war 
had been fought almost entirely 
on southern soil, and the ruins 
of beautiful southern homes 
marked its path. Yet under 
these burdens their spirits bore 
up wonderfully well. 

Especially were the southern 
women rising nobly to meet the 
^^j^ situation. Life for them was 
sadly changed since the days of 
peace and plenty. Many were 
obliged to act as the head of the 
family and manage the home and plantation. This 
meant directing the work of the slaves in the field, 




A Confederate soldier 



EFFECTS OF THE WAR ON THE SOUTH 143 

and, by all sorts of contrivances, keeping the negroes 
as well as their own families, fed and clothed. It was 
no easy task. Where were they to get material for 
clothing? They could no longer import it from foreign 
lands. The Southerners had never manufactured 
much for themselves, so they had to go back to primi- 
tive ways. Every household became a miniature fac- 
tory. Old spinning wheels and hand looms that had 
not been used for generations were hauled out of the 
garrets. Patiently and cheerfully the women set 
about learning the long-forgotten arts of carding and 
spinning and weaving. 

The ladies could now pay little attention to fashion. 
They were glad if they could supply themselves and 
their slaves and the thousands of soldiers in the field 
with simple homespun clothing and homemade shoes 
and hats. They learned to make wicker baskets of 
willow branches. They learned to tan leather, using 
the skins of swine and even of dogs. They learned to 
make various substitutes for oil lamps and candles. 
In hundreds of other ways they proved true the old 
adage that ''necessity is the mother of invention." 

They learned, too, to make their agriculture meet 
their new needs. They raised less cotton and more 
rice, sugar, corn, wheat, and other food crops. There 
was one crop that they had heretofore scorned, but 
now were learning to appreciate. This was the 
peanut, or groundnut. Peanuts were soon raised in 
large quantities, and used in many ways. They were 



144 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

eaten, they were fed to pigs to fatten them, and even 
the peanut oil was used for lamps. 

The war was costing the Confederates as well as 

the North much money. To help meet expenses the 

government taxed the people one tenth 

Confederate ^^ ^^^.^^ cotton crop. But the Confeder- 

money 

acy could not pay its bills without 
borrowing. So it issued paper money. As the war 
progressed, people became more and more doubtful 
as to whether the Confederacy would live to pay 
back any of what it had borrowed. As a result, 
they were afraid to take the paper money in place 
of gold and silver, and when they did, it was only at 
a great discount. For instance, coffee cost in Con- 
federate money fifty dollars a pound and flour several 
hundred dollars a barrel. A newspaper, printed per- 
haps on a piece of wrapping paper or wall paper, 
cost a dollar, and everything else was in proportion. 
Conditions were trying for everybody, but worst of 
all for those families who lived in the invaded parts of 

the country. The Union soldiers, sweep- 
Trials of the . ^j^j.Q^^ ^he land, often took food and 
homeless ° 

other supplies from them. Many saw 

their houses burned, and were obliged to flee to some 
stronghold or to some district not yet invaded. 

One of the places to which people came for shelter 
was Vicksburg. This city, situated on a hill at a bend 
in the Mississippi and protected by strong fortifica- 
tions, was supposed to be impregnable. But before 



SIEGE OF VICKSBURG 



145 



long the people who gathered there would have been 
glad to be elsewhere. When the city was besieged 
by Grant's forces, life became anything but peaceful. 
The shrieking shells began to roar and tear into 
town. The people took to cave-dwelling, like those 
of long ago. Holes ________ 



were dug into the 
earth on the sides 
of the hills away 
from the firing. 
They were small 
and damp, and in 
constant danger 
of caving in and 
burying the in- 
habitants. One 
lady tells of her 
experiences in a 
cave the floor of which was shaped like the letter T. 
In one end of the cross space was a bed, and in the 
other, a hole some two feet deeper than the floor. 
This hole was the only place where there was room 
to stand, and she says: ''When tired of sitting in 
other portions of my residence, I bowed myself into 
it, and stood impassively resting at full height." So 
many were the caves that they "reminded one very 
much of the numberless holes that swallows make in 
summer." 

The people lived chiefly on corn bread and bacon, 




Caves used during the siege of Vicksburg 



146 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

and were lucky to get this three times a day. They 

were even glad to vary their diet with mule meat. In 

fact, the soldiers defending the city preferred the 

fresh mule meat to the bacon and salt rations. So 

the commissaries killed a number of mules each day. 

The eating hours were very irregular, because all the 

cooking had to be done outside the caves when there 

was a lull in the falling of the shells. 

Great as were the sacrifices which the Southerners 

were making, they could not keep on forever. It was 

on this that the Federal government 

,^ ^^ counted. The North hoped to be able to 

North ^ 

wear the Southerners out, even if it could 
not immediately conquer them. The general plan of 
the war was to tighten the blockade all along the 
coasts of the Confederacy, to seize the rest of the 
Mississippi River, and then with the armies to push 
in from the north and west. 

It seemed that the North, having more men, more 
money, more resources of every kind, must surely win 
sooner or later. And yet, in spite of all this, in the 
early summer of 1863, here was Lee, rapidly marching 
a determined, well-disciplined army across Maryland 
and into Pennsylvania. The North was almost in a 
panic of fear. 

The Union army sent to oppose Lee was put under 
the command of General Meade. For a few days the 
two armies played for advantage of position. Finally 
they clashed at Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, not far 



GETTYSBURG 



M7 



Gettysburg 



from the Maryland line. Here, beginning July i, was 
fought one of the fiercest and most famous of the 
world's great battles. It raged for three 
days. In the first maneuvering the Fed- 
erals were defeated, and suffered a severe loss in the 
death of one of their gallant officers. General Reynolds. 
They were badly mixed up in the streets of the town 
and many were taken 
prisoners. But order .v,^i^^^'" 

was soon restored in 
the Union forces, and 
their troops placed in 
important positions 
on a line of hills near 
the town. Though 
they were outplayed 
at some points they 
held the hills against 
the valiant charges of 
the Confederates. 

On the third day 
the indomitable Lee, 
in desperation, hurled 
his men upon the Union intrenchments on Cemetery 
Ridge. Despite the awful fire from the Union guns, 
the attack was steady and gallant. A few of the 
men actually reached the breastworks and boldly 
planted their flags upon them. But it could be for 
only a moment. The equal bravery, the better posi- 








«■ '€^'^ 




One of the monuments on the Gettysburg 
battlefield 



148 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

tion, and the greater force of the Federals were 
bound to tell. Their artillery and infantry fire from 
all sides centered upon the heroic charging soldiers 
and cut them down by thousands. By the close of 
July 3 the great battle was over. But with what 
frightful loss! The killed and wounded and missing 
on both sides reached 50,000. Four months later 
President Lincoln dedicated a portion of the battle- 
field "as a final resting place for those who gave their 
lives that our nation might live." 

Following the battle of Gettysburg, the Confeder- 
ates withdrew southward, never again to carry the 
war into the northern states. The people 

Vicksburff 

of the North were greatly relieved at this 
turn in the tide. The news of Gettysburg had just 
reached them when, from the Mississippi valley, came 
other wonderful tidings. On July 4 Vicksburg, after 
forty-seven days of siege, had surrendered to Grant. 
Soon the Federal gunboats controlled the entire length 
of the river. At last the Confederacy was cut in two. 
From this time forward there was little warfare west of 
the river. The Union steadily pushed its conquering 
troops eastward. Tighter and tighter it drew the line 
that hemmed in the Confederacy on all sides. Still 
there were many fierce battles ahead, for the South 
was prepared to dispute bravely to the last every 
inch of her ground. 

In Tennessee General Rosecrans pushed the Con- 
federates southward until he gained possession of 



CHICKAMAUGA AND CHATTANOOGA 149 

Chattanooga. Near-by, at Chickamauga, however, 

he was defeated in one of the bloodiest battles of the 

war. The redeeming feature of the battle ^ 

Tennessee 

was the daring stand of General Thomas, 
who ranged his men on a rocky horseshoe-shaped hill. 
Against this position the Confederates hurled them- 
selves in repeated assaults, only to meet with a steady 
repulse. So solid did the Union general hold his 
ranks that he earned for himself the title of the Rock 
of Chickamauga. 

It was not long before Grant arrived at Chatta- 
nooga, and took command. Well reenforced, he was 
ready, toward the end of November, to sally forth 
against the Confederate army which occupied strong 
positions on the surrounding hills. At every point 
the Federals won. Especially picturesque was the 
Battle above the Clouds, waged by Hooker's men, 
who fought their way to a point high up on Lookout 
Mountain. The victory at Chattanooga was a very 
important gain to the Federals, for it gave them 
control of almost the entire state of Tennessee. It is 
worth remembering, too, that in this battle, the four 
Union generals. Grant, Sherman, Sheridan, and 
Thomas, fought together for the only time. From 
now on the history of the war is largely the history of 
the exploits of these great leaders. 

In March, 1864, the position of Lieutenant General 
was created, and Grant was appointed to the office. 
This made him supreme in command over all the 



I50 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

Union forces, second only to the President, who is at 

all times commander in chief of the army, and of the 

navy as well. Grant took immediate 

, steps to have all the armies work together 
command ^ ^ ° 

under one plan. The crowding in of the 
Confederate lines of defense was to go on. Sherman 
was to push in from the west and Grant was to move 
on Richmond from the north. The two armies were 
operating at the same time, but we will follow the 
fortunes first of Sherman and then of Grant. 

In May the advance began. Sherman's chief aim 
was to reach Atlanta, the most important city of 

Georgia, and occupy it. He was opposed 

, with great skill, but finally the Confed- 

advance ^ ' -^ 

erates were forced to leave the city. 
We must not forget that in managing an army 
there is a great deal more than just marching it around 
and setting it to fighting. An army, like 
any other gathering of men, must be 
clothed and fed. Indeed, some one has 
said that ''an army travels on its stomach." It is 
no small task to get three meals a day for a family 
living at home. How much more difhcult it must be 
to provide for thousands of men marching about from 
place to place. This is the business of the commis- 
sary department. The general in command has to 
manage his army so as to keep in touch with what 
is called a "base of supplies." This is some place 
where food and clothing are sent and stored, and 



PROVIDING FOR AN ARMY 151 

from which the commissary can issue them to the 
moving army. 

For example, while Sherman was operating against 
Atlanta, far-off Louisville, on the Ohio, was his base 
of supplies. From that city there was but a single 
track of railroad, running through a wild and moun- 
tainous country. Everything needed by an army of 
100,000 men had to be carried over this road. This 
meant that 130 loaded cars had to be hauled safely 
every day. Here was an excellent opportunity for 
the enemy, especially their cavalry, to dash in, tear up 
the rails, destroy the cars, and cut down the bridges. 
Every foot of the road had to be safeguarded against 
attack, and the cars and roadbed kept in condition for 
the important work required of them. 

It was a long thin line for the Union army to be hang- 
ing on, and when the Confederates moved north to 
break it, Sherman determined to make a daring ven- 
ture. He would cut loose from his base of supplies and 
start eastward, "living on the country." That is, in- 
stead of feeding his army with supplies brought from 
his base, he would have his men forage for themselves, 
eating what they could find as they went along. Some 
thought he would be foolhardy to attempt it. But 
there was no army to oppose him, and if he could reach 
the Atlantic coast he could secure supplies from the 
North by sea. His success would mean that the Con- 
federacy would be cut across once again, this time 
from east to west. 



15: 



THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 



From Atlanta 
to the Sea 



So, on November i6, Sherman, with 62,000 men, 
started on his famous march to the sea. The weather 
was favorable and food was plentifuL In 
five weeks the army covered three hun- 
dred miles, cutting a strip sixty miles wide 
through the heart of the Confederacy. The troops 
destroyed railroads, captured great stores of pro- 
visions, and made desolate all the land. It is said 
that no living thing was found in Sherman's track, — 
only the chimneys were left to mark the path of his 
army. Finally he reached Savannah, which offered 
little resistance, so that, on December 21, Sherman 
sent to Lincoln the message: "I beg to present you 
as a Christmas gift the city of Savannah." 

Before turning our attention to Grant, we will note 
two other events of importance in 1864. One occurred 
in August and the other in November, and 
both were Union victories. The first was 
a naval expedition against Mobile Bay in which Ad- 
miral Farragut 
and his crews 
distinguished 
themselves. The 
admiral, lashed 
to the rigging 
of his flagship, 
the Hartford, 
directed his 
fleet past the Confederate forts and engaged in a 




"^^^-k:"-^^*' 



The Hartford 



MOBILE BAY. 153 

desperate but successful conflict with an ironclad fleet 
beyond. The harbor was henceforth held by the 
Federal forces as part of the blockade. 

The second event was a battle neither of armies nor 
of navies, but a battle of the ballots. Lincoln's term 
as President was nearly at its end. The 
people of the North opposed to the w^ar , . . 
were anxious to see him defeated for a 
second term. But he was reelected by a large ma- 
jority over the Democratic candidate, General Mc- 
Clellan, and it was then certain that the war would 
be continued to a finish. 

And now, how had Grant been faring? Early in 

May, 1864, he threw his forces into the Wilderness 

about the Rapidan River, in Virginia. 

Here was foueht one of the weirdest of „,.,j 

^ ^ ^ Wilderness 

battles. In the midst of tangled thickets 

the enemies struggled almost hand to hand. So awful 

was some of the fighting that large oak trees fell to 

the ground, their trunks severed by the bullets. 

Though the struggle lasted a long time neither side 

won a decisive victory. 

Lee kept placing his army in strong positions to bar 

Grant's progress. When Grant tried another road, 

Lee would move to a new position. 

The 
Many bloody battles were fought. Lee „ 

hoped to worry and tire out his opponents 

so as to shake them off from their purpose to take 

Richmond. But Grant kept hammering away. Lee 



154 THE TUK'^HNG OF THE TIDE 

made one move that gave the government a sudden 
scare. While Grant was held busy in front of him, 
he sent General Early down the Shenandoah valley. 
Early's troops traveled swiftly, and, carrying all before 
them, seriously threatened the city of Washington. 
Sheridan was sent after them, and pushed the Con- 
federates back up the valley. The Union army so 
thoroughly raided the country that it was said: "If 
a crow wants to fly down the Shenandoah he must 
carry his provisions with him." 

One of the stirring incidents of this campaign was 
Sheridan*s ride from Winchester to the scene of battle 
where the Union army had been suddenly surprised. 
The men were in retreat. Sheridan, dashing up to 
rejoin his army, met the stragglers and shouted to 
them to turn. Inspired to new courage by the sight 
of their leader, the soldiers re-formed and rushed back 
to battle. Even the black horse that bore the little 
general from Winchester, "twenty miles away," has 
had his praises sung by the poet: 

"With foam and with dust the black charger was gray; 
By the flash of his eye, and the red nostril's play, 
He seemed to the whole great army to say : 
* I have brought you Sheridan all the way 
From Winchester town to save the day! ' " * 

Thus Lee's attempt to distract Grant's attention 
failed. He held Richmond and its strong outpost, 
Petersburg, but by spring his position became hope- 

* T. B. Read: Sheridan's Ride. 



THE SHENANDOAH 155 

less. Sherman had started north from Savannah 

and was making fast marches through the CaroHnas. 

Grant was hammering away at the south 

and east. Only the west was left open ®® ^ 

^ surrender 

to the Confederate General. Forced to 

retreat, he started from Richmond on April 2, 
leaving that city at last to the Federals. Grant 
followed him in hot pursuit, and when Sheridan's 
troops got around to the west, Lee was cornered. 
He loved his men too well to sacrifice them in a final 
battle. To go to General Grant and ask for terms 
of surrender was to him worse than ''a thousand 
deaths." But go he did. The interview took place at 
Appomattox Court House, April 9. Those who wit- 
nessed it spoke of the extreme courtesy each gen- 
eral showed the other. Grant, as he wrote many 
years later, "felt like anything rather than rejoicing 
at the downfall of a foe who had fought so long and 
valiantly." 

The terms were soon agreed upon, and Lee went out 
to bid his soldiers farewell. "Men," he said, "we 
have fought through the war together. I have done 
my best for you. My heart is too full to say more." 

The remaining Confederate armies, woefully cut 
down in numbers and utterly worn out, soon sur- 
rendered. It was on April 14, 1861, that Major 
Anderson had marched his little company out of Fort 
Sumter, leaving it in the hands of the South Carolina 
troops. On April 14, 1865, in the presence of a dis- 



156 THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 

tinguished gathering, Anderson, now a general, raised 
over the fort the very flag that had been hauled down 
four years before, — the Stars and Stripes, the flag of 
the Union. 

** Fold up the banners! Smelt the guns! 
Love rules. Her gentler purpose runs. 

A mighty mother turns in tears. 

The pages of her battle years. 
Lamenting all her fallen sons!"* 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

In the middle of the year 1863 came the turn in the 
tide of fortune which had been favoring the Con- 
federate armies in the east. General Lee advanced 
northward as far as Gettysburg, Pennsylvania, but 
was there repulsed in one of the most severe battles of 
the war. His army then retreated southward, never 
again to invade northern soil. 

At the same time Yicksburg surrendered to Grant, 
and the Confederacy was soon cut in two along the 
Mississippi River. It remained for the Federal forces 
to invade the Confederacy from all directions. 

Tennessee was wrested from Confederate control 
in campaigns under Rosecrans, Thomas, and Grant. 
This was followed by the march of Sherman's army 
through Georgia to Savannah. Thus once again the 
Confederacy was cut across. 

Richmond, the capital of the Confederacy, was the 
most important point in the east. Grant spent nearly 

* Will Henry Thompson: The High Tide at Gettysburg. 



END OF THE WAR 



157 



a year in trying to take this city from Lee's army. 
After much skillful maneuvering on both sides and 
many fiercely contested battles, the power of the 
South was broken. Richmond fell, and in a week Lee 
surrendered. 

Thus it was settled that no state or group of states 
could secede from the Union. 







The effective Confederacy at the end of each year 



FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 



The attempt of the Confederates to invade the North was 
ended by the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 

The Confederacy was divided along the Mississippi by the 
capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. 

Lee abandoned Richmond and surrendered to Grant in 
April, 1865. 



158 



THE TURNING OF THE TIDE 



Bibliography 



Farragut. — Barnes: Midshipman Farragut. 

Beebe: Four American Naval Heroes. 

Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America, 

Mahan: Admiral Farragut. 
Gettysburg. — Altsheler: In Circling Camps. 

Beecham: Gettysburg. 

Burrage: Gettysburg and Lincoln. 

Drake: Battle of Gettysburg. 

Eggleston: Southern Soldier Stories. 

Gordon: Reminiscences of the Civil War. 

Goss: Jed. 

Hale: Stories of War. 

Hill: On the Trail of Grant and Lee. 

Kieffer: Recollections of a Drummer Boy. 

Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales from American History. 

Pickett: Bugles of Gettysburg. 

Retold from St. Nicholas: Civil War Stories. 

— Brooks: True Story of U. S. Grant. 
Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America. 
Goss: Life of Grant for Boys and Girls. 
Nicolay: Boys' Life of Ulysses S. Grant. 

— Barnes: Son of Light Horse Harry. 

Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of America 

Johnston: Leading American Soldiers. 

Trent: Robert E. Lee. 

Whitehead: Two Great Southerners. 
Vickshurg. — Abbott: Battle-fields and Camp-fires. 

Coffin: Marching to Victory. 

Goss: Tom Clifton. 

Hill: On the Trail of Grant and Lee. 
General. — Coffin: Drum-beat of the Nation. 

Coffin: Freedom Triumphant. 

Matthews: Our Navy in Time of War. 



Grant. 



Lee. 




The day was first observed by the ladies of Richmond 



CHAPTER VIII 
RECONSTRUCTION 

On one of the quiet streets in our nation's capital 
there stands a quaint building, three stories high and 
oddly shaped. It is even yet known as Ford's 
Theater, although many years have passed since it 
was last used as a playhouse. But at the time of the 
Civil War it was at the height of its popularity. 
On the very day on which our flag again flung its 
folds over Fort Sumter, this theater was the scene of 
a nation's drama. 

That evening a brilliant and expectant audience 
filled the theater. The afternoon papers had an- 
nounced that President Lincoln and General Grant, 
with their wives, were to be present. The box at 
the right of the stage, set apart for the distinguished 
party, was gayly decorated with national flags. 
When the occupants of the box arrived it was seen 
that neither the beloved President nor the honored 
commander was among them. General Grant, it 
seems, had been obliged to hasten North on some 
engagement and President Lincoln was detained by 
business. The play had not progressed far, however, 
when the audience arose and cheered wildly, the band 

IS9 



i6o 



RECONSTRUCTION 



played "Hail to the Chief," and the great President 

was seen bowing his acknowledgments. 

The play had reached the third act, when suddenly 

the audience was stunned with horror by the sound of 
a pistol shot. All eyes turned toward 
their beloved chief stricken by the hand 
of an assassin. From out the smoke 

there leaped a man. Striking with his dagger at an 

army officer who tried to seize him, he vaulted over 



Lincoln 
assassinated 




Ford's Theater, in Washington 



the railing of the box to, the stage below. The spur 
on one of his riding boots caught in the folds of a 
flag, and he was thrown to the floor. In spite of a 
broken leg he rushed from the stage and was soon 
lost in the night. 

The wounded President was tenderly carried to a 
near-by house, and through the long night, skillful 
physicians did their best to save the precious life. 
But slowly it ebbed away, and in the early morning 



LINCOLN ASSASSINATED i6i 

Abraham Lincoln, the martyred President, sank to 
his rest. 

The 19th of April, 1865, was a day of mourning 
throughout the land. On that day funeral services 
were read over the body of Lincoln as it lay in state 
in the east room of the White House. Following 
this, the casket, under escort of soldiers and civilians, 
was taken to the Capitol. Two days later it was 
placed on a funeral car. The entire train, including 
the engine, was draped in black. Then began the 
most impressive of funeral processions. Through 
eight states it retraced the route that the President 
had taken from his home in Illinois to his inauguration. 
In Baltimore, in Philadelphia, in New York, — every- 
where along the way, — the people gathered in loving 
sorrow. Finally the body was laid to rest in Lincoln's 
home city, Springfield. 

The death of Lincoln was a crushing blow to both 
North and South. Multitudes of the people, even of 
the South, recognized him as a friend. If the war 
must be, and if they must go down in defeat, the 
Southerners felt that their interests would be more 
wisely taken care of by Lincoln than by any of the 
other Federal statesmen. And just now the nation 
needed the very wisest guidance, for it was still 
bitterly divided. There could be no true reunion 
until the old wounds should heal. At the best, this 
would take a long time. As w^e look back now, 
we can see that Lincoln's death delayed by many 



1 62 * RECONSTRUCTION 

years the coming of real peace between the two 
sections. 

Bitter, indeed, was the feeling of each section 

against the other. The South felt that it had been 

defeated not because it was in the wrong 

but because it had been overpowered by 

greater numbers. The North was equally 

sure that the South had been wrong from the very 

beginning. It was angry, too, that the South had 

held out so long in a losing fight, thus increasing the 

cost in men and money. 

For another thing, the treatment of prisoners of 
war had angered both sides, especially the North. 
Captured Federal soldiers were put 
into such prisons as the South could 
afiford. These were, of course, not very pleasant 
places. The prisoners complained bitterly of the 
conditions. The buildings were filthy, the food was 
poor, and there was not much of it. In some cases the 
keepers treated the prisoners with cruelty. 

The people of the South claimed that they did the 
best they could. They themselves were living on 
short rations, and could not be expected to treat their 
prisoners any better. Their best men were fighting 
at the front, and many of those left at home to keep 
the prisons, lacked the bravery and intelligence of the 
southern soldiers. 

The Confederates claimed, too, that they were 
really not responsible for keeping their captured 



PRISON LIFE 163 

soldiers in prison, for they had been ready to exchange 
them. But the Federal government, toward the close 
of the war, had refused to exchange because the 
Confederates would gain thereby. For each Union 
prisoner that the northern officers received they 
would be giving a better-cared-for Confederate. More 
than this, the North still had so many men that it 
was not in great need of its imprisoned soldiers. The 
South, on the other hand, would have been glad to 
have had its men released that they might be added to 
its armies in the field. 

Some of the prisoners, however, did not wait for 
their release, but by one means or another managed to 
escape. Many were the thrilling experiences of the 
imprisoned soldiers of the North who attempted to 
elude their guards. Sometimes they were successful, 
but more often they were not. 

One of the most ingenious escapes took place from 
Libby Prison, in Richmond. Here a score of men 
spent weeks patiently digging a tunnel to freedom. 
First they cut away a few bricks from a chimney, 
carefully concealing the place behind some barrels. 
Then down the narrow, stuffy chimney they crawled, 
to an unused storeroom below. 

At first they had only a piece of tin can with which 
to dig. Trying to cut into the earth with this was 
slow and discouraging business. But luck came their 
way. One day a mason, working within the prison, 
left his trowel when he went out at noon. When he 



164 



RECONSTRUCTION 



returned, the trowel had mysteriously disappeared, so 
he gave it up as lost. Soon that trowel was doing 
hard service scratching away in the tunnel leading out 
from the old storeroom. Many times the men were 




^::^ 










Libby Prison, m Richmond 

almost caught. However, after patient weeks the 
tunnel had been run so far out that it could be opened 
up into the street outside the prison walls. 

It was agreed that, on the night set for the escape, 
the men who had done the work should have the first 
chance. But each of them had a friend or t\vo whom 
he wanted to take with him. Soon hundreds of the 
prisoners knew of this hope of liberty. So there was 
a great rush for the tunnel, and a scrambling, pushing 
fight to get in. Some nearly suffocated, crawling along 
the close, dark, narrow passage, through the damp 
earth, over and around rocks and roots. Yet more 



EFFECTS OF THE WAR 165 

than one hundred got away. Imagine the amazement 

of the guards when they came to count their prisoners 

the next morning! But it was one thing for the men 

to get through the tunnel and out into the open, and 

quite another to reach the lines of the far-away Union 

army. Some did escape, but many were recaptured 

and brought back to pass other long weary days and 

nights ''waiting for the war to cease." 

The southern people felt that they had a grievance 

because the North had recruited negro soldiers from 

among the freed slaves, and had used 

them in battle a9:ainst their former mas- 

^ grievances 

ters. Again, the Southerners were very 
bitter over Sherman's raid from Atlanta to the sea. 
They accused him of having been much more de- 
structive than need be. 

These were but a few of the grievances. When, 
upon the death of Lincoln, Andrew Johnson, the Vice 
President, came into power, he faced a very trying 
situation. The war was over, but the nation was 
really cut in two. Hundreds of millions of dollars 
had been put into the war. And worse than this, 
thousands of men had died on the field of battle. 
With all these strong men gone and thousands of sur- 
viving soldiers suffering from wounds and disease, the 
country was in a sorry state. 

In 1787 the fathers of the nation had established 
the Union, as they supposed, once for all. But now 
it was strained and weakened, and before the states- 



i66 RECONSTRUCTION 

men of 1865 was the great task of rebuilding it. 
Reconstruction we call the period of the next twenty 
years, during which this task was being accomplished. 

In April, 1865, General Halleck wrote to General 
Meade: ''The Army of the Potomac have shown 
the people of Virginia how they would be treated 
as enemies. Let them now prove that they know 
equally well how to treat the same people as friends." 
This was the spirit of the conquering soldiers gener- 
ally, for they had learned to respect the warriors of 
the South. But there were many others, especially 
the politicians and stay-at-homes, who shouted for 
vengeance. 

Thus, real reconstruction was delayed by those who 
were not satisfied with having beaten the South, but 
wanted to treat it as a conquered land. They would 
call all Southerners traitors and punish them even 
though the war was over. Many of the best of the 
Southerners fled from the country to Mexico, to 
Brazil, to Egypt, and to Europe, too saddened and 
crushed to remain among the ruins of their old homes. 
Others went bravely back to work and stayed to help 
build up the New South. To-day we are proud that 
there is no North, no South, in any bitter sense; but 
that all the states are equally loyal to the Red, White, 
and Blue of the American Union. 

One of the beautiful customs growing out of the war 
is that of observing Memorial Day. It is on this 
anniversary that, decorating the soldiers' graves with 



MEMORIAL DAY 



167 



Memorial Day 



flags and flowers, we give special thought to the heroes 

who . have gone to their final reward. 

The day was first observed in 1866, by 

the ladies of Richmond, and the custom was eagerly 

followed by both North and South. 

The sad conflict had been brought about by two 
great issues, slavery and secession. The war settled 
both these for all time. 

As to slavery, not only were the slaves freed, but 
they were given more than even the Abolitionists had 
asked for them. It was a serious matter 

Slavery ques- 

to give u„„ 3^jt,,d 
several 

million slaves their 
freedom. The igno- 
rant negroes did not 
even understand 
what freedom 
meant. Most of 
them had wild 
dreams of a life 
without work. The 
great President 
who had set them 
free would, they 
believed, provide 
them with food and shelter and clothing, while they 
spent their days in care-free idleness. They were 
soon to discover that this was not at all what was 




Statue of Lincoln, at Washington 



1 68 RECONSTRUCTION 

to happen. A few of them had learned to be in- 
dustrious and thrifty. These soon had work to do, 
and they kept faithfully at it. Most of the negroes 
stayed at their old homes, working for wages for their 
former masters or for other people in the neighborhood. 
But thousands of the restless wandered idly away 
seeking adventure. Idleness led to want, and want 
led to theft. Soon the South was overrun with poor 
deluded negroes who daily became more insolent and 
more dangerous. 

Even before the close of the war the government at 

Washington realized that something should be done 

to help the negro and to protect other 

, „ people from his misdeeds. So there was 

men's Bureau ^ ^ 

formed in the War Department the 
"Bureau of Refugees, Freedmen, and Abandoned 
Lands." This Freedmen's Bureau encouraged the 
negroes to work, and helped them to get work to do. 
Then it helped them to make their contracts so that 
they would not be imposed upon, and to settle their 
labor disputes. It also arranged for the sale and pur- 
chase of land so that the negroes might become 
property owners. Thus, gradually, some of the former 
slaves became more self-reliant. 

It was very important, too, that the negroes should 
become intelligent and responsible, for they were 
soon given political rights. Lincoln's proclamation 
had freed most of them. But, at the close of the 
war, freedom was made doubly sure. The Con- 



THE AMENDMENTS 169 

stitution was amended so that slavery should never 

again exist within the United States. 

This made the Thirteenth Amendment, 

amendments 

and soon another was passed giving the 
negroes citizenship. It was followed by the Fifteenth 
Amendment, passed five years after the war closed, 
which gave the slaves the privilege of voting. 

The war also settled the question of the right to 
secede. But it was a long time before the seceded 

states regained their old place in the 

T T • "T^i T^ 11 .11 occession 

Union. Ihe rederal government would ,,, ^ 

^ settled 

not recognize the old Confederate state 
governments, and while it was trying to work out some 
plan for establishing new state governments, there was 
much confusion. In the early part of 1867 the South 
was divided into five military districts, and over each 
a Federal general was placed in command. Under 
the protection of the army, loyal state governments 
were established. In the course of two or three years 
one after another of the seceded states was readmitted 
into the Union. 

This result was not secured without many difficul- 
ties. For one thing the ablest men of the South were 
not allowed to help in reconstruction. Officeholders 
had to swear that they had never given "aid or 
comfort" to a Confederate. Of course, very few 
people in the South could take such an oath. Those 
who could were called "scalawags." The result was 
that the offices went to them and to negroes and 



lyo RECONSTRUCTION 

"carpet-baggers." The name carpet-bagger was 
given by the Southerners to the men from the North 
who flocked into their states at the close of the war. 
Most of these men were without much more property 
than they could bring with them in handbags. They 
counted on making their fortunes by taking advantage 
of the situation in the South. These men soon gained 
the confidence of the negroes, got themselves elected 
to profitable ofiices, and ran the governments to suit 
themselves. The states were soon loaded down with 
enormous debts, affairs were mismanaged, and law- 
breaking was common. 

The southern white men defended themselves 
against the lawlessness as best they could. Almost 
by accident they found one way to control 
^ ^' ' many of the negroes. In a little village 
of Tennessee a party of young men found 
time hanging heavy on their hands, so they formed 
a secret club called the Kuklos, or Circle. One form 
of entertainment in which they indulged was to dis- 
guise themselves and ride about the country at night. 
Man and horse were sheeted; the man wore a mask 
and a cardboard hat, and the horse's feet were muffled. 
Flashing along the moonlit road, their ghostlike 
figures startled the ignorant and superstitious negroes 
huddling in their cabins. At first, the whole thing was 
just a boyish prank. But before long the white men 
of the South recognized that here was a way to keep 
the negroes in order and to punish people whom they 



THE KU-KLUX-KLAN 171 

suspected of wrongdoing. The organization spread 
from state to state, and became known as the In- 
visible Empire of the South, or the Ku-Klux-Klan 
Their purpose, they declared, was ''to protect the 
weak, innocent, and defenseless from the indignities, 
wrongs, and outrages of the lawless, the violent, and 
the brutal." 

In time, however, conditions greatly improved. 
The Union troops were withdrawn, the capable men 
of the South gained control, and order was restored. 

Fortunately, the sad picture of the South at the 
close of the war was not repeated in the North. Ex- 
cept for Gettysburg and the battles in the border states, 
no important fighting had been done on Union soil. 
The people of the North had not suffered the spoiling 
and plundering of their homes by invading armies. 
Yet they had heavy sorrows. They had been borne 
down with grief over the brave who had fallen at the 
front — and these numbered awful thousands. There 
were thousands more in the field, sick and wounded, 
who might never see their homes again. 

There were other thousands of able-bodied men 

who were now to lay down their arms. What a vast 

number they were! In May, 1865, the 

combined Union armies of the East and ^, 

the army 

West marched through the avenues of 
Washington with glittering guns and battle-scarred 
flags. The columns extended thirty miles. It took 
nearly two whole days for them to pass in review. 



172 



RECONSTRUCTION 



These were the men who had been for months or even 
years busy in the work of destruction. Now they 




were to return 
to the labors of peace, — to 
the office, to the forge, to 
the farm, — and once again 
take up the work that they 
had put aside for war. This 

they did with as good courage as they had shown on 
the field, and the "old soldier" was soon quietly at- 
tending to his new duties. 

There was yet another burden. The government 



The review of the Union soldiers 
in Washington 



THE DEBT 173 

had gone deeply into debt to carry on the war. This 
meant heavy taxes. Long years passed 
before the burden was hfted — in fact, 
we are still paying out money on account of the war 
of a half-century ago. But there was little complaint 
over the size of the debt. The Union had been 
preserved, and the people were as ready to pay the 
price in money as they had been to pay it in men. 

An annoying thing connected with the money prob- 
lem was that gold and silver became scarce. Vari- 
ous substitutes were used for silver coins. Postage 
stamps came into use as ''small change." They were 
better than nothing, but they were flimsy and sticky. 
The government came to the rescue by printing small- 
sized paper money for fractions of a dollar. Even 
these were inconvenient to handle, and every one was 
glad enough when, some ten years later, coins again 
took their place. 

The war brought upon us two difficulties with 
foreign nations. Our neighbors in Mexico had been 
having a civil war of their own, beginning The Monroe 
in 1857. Four years later England, Doctrine in 
France, and Spain interfered in order to Mexico 
protect their citizens who were in danger there. The 
three nations agreed that they would not take sides as 
to who should be the ruler of Mexico. France, how- 
ever, broke this agreement. Napoleon III thought 
that the United States was now too busy with its own 
troubles to enforce the Monroe Doctrine. So he sent 



174 RECONSTRUCTION 

an army into Mexico and put his friend, Maximilian 
of Austria, on the throne. The United States pro- 
tested, but could do nothing more until after the close 
of our war. Then troops were massed on the frontier, 
and the French soldiers prudently withdrew. 

The second matter turned out to be a triumph for 
arbitration. That is, instead of settling it by war, 
the two nations agreed to submit their 
1 ims disputes to outsiders. The disagreement 

was with England over help she had given 
the Confederates. England had declared that she 
would remain neutral; that is, she would not take 
sides in the war. Despite this, she had allowed 
warships built in her yards to be sold to the Con- 
federacy. The chief of them was the cruiser Alabama. 
The United States claimed that England ought to pay 




The Alabama pursuing a northern ship 



for the damage these ships had done. Five commis- 
sioners were appointed, each by the ruler of a different 
nation, to consider the case. They met in Geneva, 



THE ALABAMA CLAIMS 175 

Switzerland, and decided the dispute against England, 
who was required to pay the United States several 
million dollars. We have reason to be proud of this 
achievement, not because we won our point, but be- 
cause it was a victory for the peaceful settlement of 
differences. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

The rejoicing of the people over the ending of the 
war was turned to sorrow by the assassination of 
Lincoln, in April, 1865. His assassin was shot while 
resisting capture. Lincoln was succeeded by Andrew 
Johnson. He and the statesmen about him had before 
them a very perplexing problem, that of reconstructing 
the Union. 

The war had settled the slavery question forever. 
The settlement was written into the Constitution by 
the Thirteenth Amendment. This was followed by 
two amendments giving the former slaves citizenship 
and the right to vote. The Federal government 
formed the Freedmen's Bureau to help the negroes 
take care of themselves in their new-found freedom. 

The Southern states were for a time managed by 
military governors appointed by the Federal govern- 
ment. In a few years all were given back their state- 
hood and readmitted to the Union. 

While this was going on, other problems at home 
and abroad were being settled satisfactorily. The 
armies were disbanded, and the men returned without 
confusion to their work at home. The debt, though 
heavy, has been cheerfully borne and constantly re- 
duced in amount. 



176 RECONSTRUCTION 

As to foreign affairs, we had to restate the Monroe 
Doctrine to France, who had been interfering in 
Mexico. When we showed that we were in earnest, 
France withdrew from that country. We also had 
claims against England for certain aid which she had 
given the Confederacy. A commission of arbitration 
went over the matter and decided it in our favor. 

FACT TO BE MEMORIZED 

The Civil War resulted in the abolition of slavery and the 
reunion of the states. 



CHAPTER IX 

THE GREAT WEST 

The Civil War was over, but the American people 

could not forget that they owed a heavy debt to their 

valiant defenders. Many who had risked 

their all in that terrible struggle were ^"P".^^^^^ 

^^ Presidents 

rewarded with public office. The highest 

honor in the gift of the people came to several of the 
leaders who had fought and suffered in the war. 
Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley — 
all Republicans — were elected to the presidency. 
And these men came neither from the old North nor 
from the old South, but from the newer West. All 
were born in Ohio, one of the states carved out of the 
great Northwest Territory that was organized at the 
close of the Revolution. How that region was settled 
and how it furnished Presidents is all part of a won- 
derful story of progress. 

We recall that Columbus and the other early 
explorers were seeking a western passage. They 
found, instead, a new western continent. 
Thither people flocked by thousands. '^^' ^""'^"'^ 

•' movement 

Presently our country was settled along 

its eastern coast and as far west as the Allegheny 

177 



178 THE GREAT WEST 

Mountains. The next movement was across these 
mountains to the Mississippi. Then the vast Loui- 
siana Territory gave us a new western boundary, and 
the pioneer pushed his way into the fertile plains 
beyond the river. Farther on was a region of desola- 
tion known as the Great American Desert, and 
beyond it rose the lofty Rockies. For a while these 
obstacles seemed to say to the pioneer, ''Stop! You 
can go no further!" But he conquered the desert 
and the mountains, and succeeded in reaching the 
Pacific. 

It was nearly four centuries before the western coast 
of our continent was thus settled. There are many 
reasons why it took so long. We who journey by 
swiftly moving electric car, fast speeding train, or 
palatial steamer, find it difficult to imagine travel 
without these means. But the pioneer who left the 
English colonies in the early eighteenth century and 
made his way across the Allegheny Mountains usually 
went afoot. He carried his possessions on his back, 
and relied on his rifle and ax for food and protection. 
Sometimes he had the aid of a pack horse or a saddle 
horse. Sometimes he went by water, for "the early 
emigrant learned that a raft would eat nothing, that 
a boat ran well down stream." So, many of our fore- 
fathers put their goods on rafts or on fiatboats and 
floated down the streams that flowed south and south- 
west. Traveling by these means, they reached and 
settled what they called the "West." 



THE WESTWARD MOVEMENT 179 

With the invention of the steamboat the pioneer 
no longer needed to depend on the raft or fiatboat. 




A fiatboat 

More than this, he was now able to go not only with 
the current, but up stream as well. Thus was opened 
for settlement an ever increasing area. But to cross 
the dry plains and the Rocky Mountains, the faithful 
horse again had to be called into service. 

The early western life of our country bred many 
heroes. Indeed every man and every woman, every 
boy and every girl, who took part in the work o^ the 
pioneers was of necessity brave and dauntless. 

The way across the Alleghenies into Kentucky was 

led by Daniel Boone in 1769. From his home in 

North Carolina, with a few companions, 

. 1111 Daniel Boone 

he crossed the mountams and blazed a 

trail through the dark forests to the fair land beyond. 
The country was the hunting ground of many red 
men. For this reason the route was beset with 
danger. There was no knowing where the dark- 
skinned forms might be hiding. Many a night the 
pioneers slept in hollow trees. Many a cheery camp- 



i8o THE GREAT WEST 

fire they were forced to abandon, driven away by 
prowling savages. 

Boone returned East, but he made the trip again 
several times. On each expedition he took a larger 
number of people with him. The path that he made 
was given several names: ''Boone's Trail," the "Ken- 
tucky Road," the ''Wilderness Road." As the way 
into the new country became more and more safe, 
signs such as the following were frequently posted : 

Notice 
"A large company will meet at Crab Orchard 
the 19th of November in order to start the next 
day through the Wilderness. As it is very danger- 
ous on account of the Indians, it is hoped each 
person will go well armed." 

The progress of the people across the great American 
continent has been compared to a "series of rolling 
waves, one passing ever on beyond the 
other." Let us look into the childhood 
home of Abraham Lincoln. There we see a family 
that, like many others, was being borne along on this 
tide. In the fall of 18 16 Abraham's father packed his 
few household goods on two borrowed horses, stowed 
the children among the bundles, and with his wife by 
his side, started on foot from Kentucky for a new home 
in Indiana. 

Arriving at the Ohio, the horses were unloaded and 
sent back. On the other side of the river the load was 
piled into a hired wagon and pulled to the new home. 



PIONEER LIFE i8i 

Home! What an odd name to give that cold bleak 
waste — for carpets, fallen leaves; and for walls, tall, 
straight trees whose bare intertwining branches formed 
the only roof. 

A rude structure of logs was hastily put together. 
The father cut down the trees, the mother helped to 
trim them, and little Abraham and his sister added 
their strength when it came to putting the logs in 
place. Heaps of dry leaves served as beds, and as 
there was no chimney, the fire had to be built outside 
the cabin. It was a hard struggle that first winter 
just to keep alive. Each had his share of the labor. 
The little ones gathered brushwood for the fire and 
walked a mile to get water, trudging the long way back 
with their heavy burdens. Not one of the family 
possessed a pair of shoes. Clumsy homemade mocas- 
sins were not much protection from the biting sleet 
and snow of winter. 

The following year a better shelter was put up. 
This one was about eighteen feet square, with a real 
chimney, so that a fire might be built indoors. A 
deerskin served as a door, but there were no w^indows. 
A rough table and some odd three-legged chairs were 
constructed. We may wonder how they managed to 
sleep in the crude beds. The boy's bed was in an 
upper part of the cabin which formed a sort of loft. 
Each night he climbed to his sleeping place by a stair- 
way of pegs driven into the side of the wall. No roads 
led to the house, only a blazed trail through the woods. 



I82 



THE GREA'l' VVES'l' 



The new home was a great improvement on the old, 
yet how wretched it seems to us. 

The early pioneers bought little of their food and 
clothing, for it was usually many miles to the nearest 
store. They shot turkeys and deer for meat, and 
fashioned their garments out of deerskin. They made 
their bread of corn meal, and gathered wild berries 
for a dessert. Only strong bodies and brave spirits 
lived through the hardships of this life. It is to these 
dauntless pioneers and their sons and daughters that 
our country owes its forward march to better things. 

In 1826 the tide of migration had crossed the 
Mississippi and moved up the Missouri as far as the 
Kansas River. Here it was 
stopped by what was then 
known as the Great American 
Desert. At that time, west of the 
Mississippi, there were just two 
states, Missouri and Louisiana, 
and one territory, Arkansas. 

It remained for Kit Carson, 
the last and perhaps the greatest 
of western pioneers, 
to blaze the trail on 
to the Pacific. Christopher 
Carson was born in the same 
year and in the same state as 
Abraham Lincoln. He, however, had little use for 
books, so his father set him to learn a trade. But 



Kit Carson 




A pioneer 



KIT CARSON 183 

the boy had Hstened to the thrilling tales of the hunt- 
ers and trappers who came in from the mysterious 
land of the setting sun. He could not sit quietly on 
a high stool and learn to make saddles. So he ran 
away. The Missouri Intelligencer, a weekly news- 
paper, published this notice on October 12, 1826: 

"Notice is hereby given to all persons that 
Christopher Carson, a boy about sixteen years old, 
small for his age, but thick-set, with light hair, 
ran away from the subscriber, living in Franklin, 
Howard County, Missouri, to whom he had been 
bound to learn the saddler's trade, on or about the 
1st of September last. He is supposed to have 
made his way to the upper part of the state. All 
persons are notified not to harbor, support, or assist 
said boy, under penalty of the law. One cent 
reward will be given to any person who will bring 
back the said boy." 

Sometimes as hunter, sometimes as teamster, Kit 

Carson made his way from the Missouri River to the 

Sacramento, from the Gulf of California „ , 

Fremont 
far north to the Columbia. In 1842 he 

met Lieutenant Fremont and his party on the Missis- 
sippi. Fremont had been sent by the United States 
government to cross the Rockies and explore the 
region beyond. Carson joined the party and became 
their official guide. On this and later Fremont ex- 
peditions Carson rendered great service. That he did 
his work well is shown by the fact that when the great 



i84 THE GREAT WEST 

railroads connecting the East and West were laid, they 
often followed the old Fremont trails. 

Carson was a trail maker, but he was also a peace- 
maker. The farther west the white man pushed, the 
closer he crowded his red brother. And the red man 
fought. He now possessed gun and pony, and used 
them with his own peculiar cunning. He could slip 
from the saddle, cling to its side, and thus, with his 
own body well protected, fire many a death-dealing 
shot. Carson knew the red man well. Not only 
could he bring peace between Indian and white, but 
he was so well acquainted with Indian nature, that 
the braves often called upon him to settle disputes 
among themselves. It has been said that Carson was 
better than a regiment of cavalry. Withal, he was 
modest and unassuming, and shrank from praise. An 
army officer who once met him, exclaimed, ''So this 
is the distinguished Kit Carson, who made so many 
Indians run." Carson replied, ''Yes, I made some 
Indians run, but much of the time they were running 
after me." 

In January, 1848, a discovery was made in Cali- 
fornia which drew many people westward. In the 
valley of a branch of the Sacramento a 

^ ,.^ . bit of yellow metal glistened in the bed 

California / * 

of a mill stream. It called to the people 
of the East, and by tens of thousands they answered 
the call. 

A man named Marshall first spied the precious 



GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 185 

metal. "I reached my hand down and pulled It up," 
he says, "it made my heart thump, for I was certain 
it was gold." The largest particles were about the 
size of a grain of wheat. Marshall gathered a spoon- 
ful and tested it. He hammered it and found that 
it yielded to pressure. Then he tried it in fire, and 
found that it did not soon melt or change color. He 
put it through several other tests, and at last was 
convinced that it was gold. More and more of the 
bright metal was found in the neighborhood. Every 
one dropped other work to hunt for it. The news of 
the discovery leaped from settlement to settlement, 
from state to state. The people went gold crazy. 

All over the country eager thousands vied with each 
other to reach the land of promise. For the Easterner 
there were two routes, — overland, and by water 
around Cape Horn. Those who could afford it went 
by water. All sorts of crazy craft were called into 
service, but so eager were the venturesome to be first 
on the field, that sailing masters got whatever prices 
they asked. 

Travel across the continent was much cheaper, so 
the poorer people went in this way. Sometimes whole 
families packed their household goods into a wagon 
and set off, taking their animals with them. Often 
just the men went, but always they traveled in great 
numbers. Many were so eager to be off that they 
were not properly prepared for so trying a journey. 
There were rough trails where the wagons overturned, 



i86 



THE GREAT WEST 



on the plains great droves of buffalo muddied the 
waters of the springs, and there were weary stretches 
of barren land where the thirsty travelers would have 
given up all the gold in the world for one drink of 
water. It is said that in 1849 the overland route was 
marked by broken-down wagons, dead animals, and 
the graves of those who had fallen by the way. 

Yet very many reached the gold fields. There a 
new and curicuis life awaited them. San Francisco 




San Francisco, shortly after the discovery of gold in California 

was a city of tents. Men slept on the floors, on 
tables, — anywhere. The harbor was filled with ves- 
sels, whose crews had joined the ranks of the gold 
seekers. There were no sailors to take the ships back 
to the home ports; one of the ships became the first 
jail of the town; others rotted away and fell to pieces. 



GOLD IN CALIFORNIA 187 

Men from many walks of life met and worked 
together. And there seemed to be gold for all. In 
forty years California yielded more than a billion 
dollars worth of .gold! It was not uncommon in the 
early days for one man to take out $1000 in one 
day, — and sometimes the amount reached $5000. 
Prices soared skyward. For example, flour brought 
fifty dollars a barrel, a spade ten, a shirt forty, a candle 
three. So simple a meal as a cup of coffee, a slice of 
ham and two eggs cost three dollars, and yet the cafes 
were crowded from morning until night. 

Most of the fortune hunters were young, vigorous, 
and law-abiding men. In September, 1849, they met 
to form a constitution, and, as we have learned, 
by the Compromise of 1850 California was admitted 
as a state. 

One of the arguments against admitting Cali- 
fornia was its great distance from Washington. How, 
people questioned, will its Congressmen ever get to 
the capital? They must spend all their time travel- 
ing, and the journey is too dangerous. But in 1862 
Congress granted several companies land for building 
railroads across the continent. 

The first of these great transcontinental railroads 
was built by two companies, one working westward 
from Omaha, and the other eastward from p^j-st trans- 
Sacramento. The workmen lived in continental 
trains, running them forward as mile after railroad 
mile of the road was completed. Progress was slow. 



i88 



THE GREAT WEST 



Sandy plains and rugged mountainsides had to be 
overcome. The workmen were well armed. Even 
so, it was occasionally necessary to detail troops to 
guard them. For the Indians "hovered about like 
vultures." The Sioux and others lay in wait to destroy 
the work as fast as it was completed. But despite 
all the difficulties the two lines finally met at Ogden, 



( 



\ 



3 




A train passing through a herd of buffaloes 

Utah. Here, with much ceremony, the last tie was 
laid. It was a piece of California laurel beautifully 
polished and bearing a silver plate on which were en- 
graved the names of the officers of the road. The 
rails were fastened to it with two spikes of gold and 
two of silver. These were driven into place by Gov- 
ernor Stanford of California and the general manager 
of the railroad. As Governor Stanford, with his silver 
hammer, dealt the blows, they were recorded by tele- 
graph all over the country. At the last stroke the 



ENGINEERING PROBLEMS 189 

word ' ' done ' ' was flashed along the wires. Not many 
years later other roads were built across the continent 
to the north and to the south of this. 

One man who rendered a large service to the Great 
West was Captain James B. Eads, an engineer. 
Across the Mississippi, at St. Louis, he ^^^^^^ ^^^^ 
built a steel bridge that was the marvel 
of its day. A few years later he gained new fame 
by his work at the mouth of this important river. 
By building out false banks, called jetties, he forced 
the river to move more swiftly. This carried farther 
out to sea the huge deposits of mud that had for 
many years prevented the passage of large steamers. 
The money for this immense undertaking was sup- 
plied by Congress, and it was four years before the 
work was completed. Finally, in 1879, it became 
possible for the largest steamers of the day to make 
their way to New Orleans, and the commerce of the 
great river made rapid gains. 

The railroads and steamships had brought the West 
many days nearer to the crowded East. The old dan- 
gers of travel across the continent were no more. A 
great many people were attracted to the new West. 
Nebraska particularly rejoiced over having a railroad 
that connected her with the outside world. Now she 
had a larger market for the products of her fertile 
soil. New settlers came in great numbers, and in 
1867 she was admitted as a state. Other western 
states grew rapidly. This was largely due to wise 



I go THE GREAT WEST 

laws passed by Congress, one of which was the 

Homestead Act of 1862. By it the head of any family 

might claim a plot of land, from eighty 

Homestead Act , , . xr 1 i- 1 

to one hundred sixty acres, it he lived 

on it and cultivated it for five years it became his 
property. Thus, in a remarkably short period, mil- 
lions of acres west of the Mississippi were taken over 
and made to yield luxuriantly. 

The government contributed in another way to 

w^estern development. In 1862 it created a new 

division in its Department of the Interior, 

eparmen ^^jj^^ ^^le Bureau of Agriculture. Later 
Agriculture ^ ° 

this bureau was made an independent 

department. It introduces into the country new and 

desirable seeds and plants. It issues bulletins that 

contain valuable information for the farmer. These 

reach the men who may be too poor to buy books, 

and too far away from libraries to borrow them. It 

is this department, too, that sends out weather reports 

and gives warning of coming storms. 

The discovery of gold in California suggested that 

the precious metal might also be hidden in the Rocky 

Mountains. It was not long before this was proved 

to be so. In 1859 gold was found in the country 

about Pikes Peak. Here was a region easier to reach 

than California, and a sudden rush to the new gold 

fields followed. It is said that one hundred thousand 

people came in one year. White- covered wagons 

were used in crossing the plains. On many of them 



ADMISSION OF NEW STATES 191 

was printed in huge black letters ''Pike's Peak or 
Bust." 

Towns sprang up as if a magician had waved his 
wand over the land. Among them were Boulder, 
Pueblo, and Denver. Denver was con- 
nected by railroad with the Union Pacific. ^, 

•' ^ other states 

In 1876 Colorado was admitted as a 
state. In the great Northwest the growth was even 
more marvelous. During the next twenty years seven 
commonwealths were taken into the growing sister- 
hood of states. These were North Dakota, South 
Dakota, Montana, and Washington, in 1889; Idaho 
and Wyoming, in 1890; and Utah, in 1896. 

As the early fortune hunter pushed his way west- 
ward, he came constantly in contact with the Indians. 
In many cases the red men proved 
friendly. But if one brave were insulted , , ,. 
it meant revenge on the first whites to 
appear, whether they were guilty or innocent. The 
national government allotted to the Indians certain 
areas known as reservations. The Indians w^ere ex- 
pected to keep within their limits, but they did not 
always do so. Having once roamed wherever they 
would, it is not strange that they sometimes grew 
weary of their restricted quarters and sallied forth 
on raiding expeditions. This, of course, angered the 
frontier settler. Yet he, in turn, did not always 
respect the Indian's territory. If the reservation 
attracted him he often slipped across its borders. 



192 



THE GREAT WEST 



Custer 



The red man and the white man were in constant 
friction. One of the most terrible encounters took 
place in 1876. The Sioux, led by Sitting 
Bull, had been extremely troublesome on 
their Montana reservation. General Sheridan was 
sent to quell the uprising. The Indians were located 

at Little Big Horn 
River, and General 
Custer, a bold cav- 
alryman, was ordered 
forward to hold them 
in check until the 
entire forces should 
arrive. With the reck- 
less daring that made 
him a most pictur- 
esque figure, General 
Custer made a head- 
long attack. But he 
and his five companies 
rode into a death trap, 
men, who were almost three thousand in 
surged upon them with savage ferocity, 
fought with desperate bravery but 
Of all that gallant band 




Sitting Bull 



The red 

number, 

The troopers 

against overwhelming odds. 

numbering two hundred sixty, not one escaped. 

Only Custer's horse and a half-breed rider survived. 

The horse was found several miles from the battlefield, 

his body bearing seven bullet wounds. The faithful 



CUSTER AND SITTING BULL 193 

charger was never again ridden and a soldier was 
detailed to care for him for the rest of his life. 

This encounter was followed by many in which the 
Indians were beaten and forced to return to their 
reservations. Several hundreds, under Sitting Bull, 
went to Canada, where they remained for four years. 
Ten years later Sitting Bull, claiming that his people 
had not been treated fairly by the government, again 
led them in an uprising. General Miles waged war 
upon them. Sitting Bull met his end, and within a 
year four thousand Indians surrendered. Since that 
time the Indians have given no serious trouble. In 
fact, large numbers of them are to-day taking part 
in the white man's civilization. They are like him in 
dress, in manners, in home life, in occupations. Like 
him they aspire to do their share of the world's work. 

The great West means to us usually the lands 
between the IVIississippi and the Pacific. Yet the 
possessions of the United States reach 
northwest even beyond the Arctic Circle. . . 
In 1867 the United States purchased 
Alaska from Russia for $7,200,000. Most people 
thought we had made a bad bargain, but we soon 
learned that the country is rich in furs, fisheries, and 
mines. In the summer of 1897 there came a wonder- 
ful story of Alaska's golden treasure. During the 
previous fall some forty experienced miners had gone 
into the region of the Yukon River. They had taken 
their working outfit and a little money. They came 



194 THE GREAT WEST 

out with a half-million dollars worth of gold and they 
had staked claims that were to yield them even greater 
wealth. The most productive region was in Canada, 
along the Klondike River, a tributary of the Yukon. 

Vast numbers of people were attracted to the new 
gold fields. They led quite a different life from the 
"forty-niners" of California or the " fif ty-niners " of 
Colorado. There is neither springtime nor autumn 
in northern Alaska, and the summer season is but four 
months long. By the first of October it is winter, 
after which outdoor work is impossible. And winter 
in Alaska means snow, ice, and often great suffering. 
Yet even women braved the dangers. Through per- 
severance and against hardships, many fortunes were 
found in the once despised territory. 

During this period of Western extension events were 
not, of course, at a standstill in other and older parts 
of the country. A year before the acqui- 
sition of Alaska, an American invention 
had secured a new command of the ocean. Tele- 
graphic wires under water had been for some time in 
successful use between Manhattan Island and Gov- 
ernor's Island in New York Bay. To stretch a sub- 
marine cable from America to Europe would be a far 
more difficult feat. Nevertheless, there was one 
American, Cyrus Field, who felt sure it could be 
done. Fortunately, many business men agreed with 
him and a company w^as formed. The governments 
of Great Britain and the United States gave liberal 



ATLANTIC CABLE 195 

aid, furnishing the vessels for laying the big cables. 
In 1857 two ships left Ireland, each carrying twelve 
hundred fifty miles of cable. All went well for three 
days. Then suddenly the cable parted. 




Laying the Atlantic cable 

This failure seemed like a national calamity. The 
vessels returned with flags at half mast. Though a 
half-million dollars had been spent, more money was 
secured and another trial was made the next year. 
This time the vessels sailed to mid-ocean, and there the 
two parts of the cable were spliced. Then one sailed 
east and the other west, each laying its cable as it went. 
At Ireland and at Newfoundland the ends of the cable 
were connected with the instruments. Under the 
water the message went singing, "Europe and America 
are united by telegraph. Glory to God in the highest, 
on earth peace, good will toward men." 

But there was yet further disappointment in store. 
Eighteen days later the cable refused to work. Once 
more discouragement and ruin confronted Field, but 
he was not daunted. In July, 1866, another cable 
was laid. This time it proved permanently successful. 



196 THE GREAT WEST 

Now many hundreds of cables lie hidden in the ocean 

deeps. Business messages and messages of good will 

fly back and forth, and we are kept informed as to 

what our foreign cousins are doing from day to day. 

While in these and countless other ways men were 

conquering nature, here and there her forces were 

showing their power to destroy. In 1871 
Chicago fire , ^ r 1 • r /, • 

a large part ot the city 01 Chicago was 

swept by a dreadful fire that raged forty-eight hours. 
It broke out at night, caused, it is supposed, by a cow 
kicking over an oil lamp. Day and night it burned, 
eating its way unmercifully from one part of the city 
to another, destroying as many as seventeen thousand 
buildings. Many people were killed by falling tim- 
bers. Others lost their lives in the mad rush to get 
away from burning and toppling houses. Almost one 
hundred thousand were made homeless. Fully two 
hundred lives were lost. Yet within two years a new 
and finer Chicago had risen over the blackened ground 
of the tragedy. 

In the following year fire swept through Boston, 
causing a loss of millions of dollars. This fire, too, be- 
gan in the evening, starting just how no 
one knows. Until four in the afternoon 
of the next day it blazed almost unchecked. The fire 
department was crippled because of an epidemic that 
had seized the horses of the city. All through the 
night business men carried such goods as they could 
to places of safety. Fire departments from neighbor- 



GREAT DISASTERS 



197 



ing towns hastened to give their services. They needed 
no message to call them. The sky for sixty miles 
inland told the dreadful story. Chicago, remember- 
ing how Boston had helped her, sent this message, 
"We will share with you whatever we have left." 
But Boston had already begun to stand up under her 
adversity. Merchants were busy selling their goods 
in hotel parlors and dining rooms. Temporary build- 
ings were hastily erected, and soon Boston w^as herself 
again. 

Fire is not the only force that nature uses in laying 
low the work of man. At times the very earth itself 
rocks and shivers. Even the early records 
of the colonies speak of earthquakes. 



Charleston 
earthquake 



One of the severest took place in 1755, 

when the coast was shaken for a thousand miles and 




A street in Charleston after the earthquake 



in Boston hundreds of houses were damaged. In 1886 
Charleston was devastated by an earthquake which 



198 THE GREAT WEST 

destroyed three fourths of the city and cost the lives 

of scores of people. 

In 1889 the city of Johnstown, Pennsylvania, was 

wrecked by flood. An unusually heavy rain caused 

the dam, eighteen miles above the city, 

JO ns own ^^ break. Within seven minutes the rag- 
flood , , ^ 
ing waters reached the city. Mounting 

higher and higher, they swept houses and people away. 
A survivor tells of the horror of seeing stately build- 
ings fall, and of seeing neighbors borne along on the 
wave, sometimes to be crushed to death against a 
broken wall, sometimes to be engulfed in the rushing 
waters. Several thousand people perished, and the 
survivors were threatened with starvation. In a sur- 
prisingly short time help in generous measure came 
flowing in. The same courage that led the Pilgrims 
and Puritans to the bleak shores of New England fired 
the hearts of these ruined people. They turned from 
the past to build a new and better future. 

Before going on to the next period in our history we 

must glance over the political situation of these days. 

As the Civil War receded further and 

further into the past, new issues came 
questions ^ ... 

into the politics of the nation. Questions 
about war and reconstruction gave way to questions 
of policy in time of peace. 

One of the subjects on which opinions differed, and 
differ still, is the tariff. Some would have a high 
tariff, believing that it makes wages higher and 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 199 

leads to prosperity. Others would have no tariff at 

all, but free trade, allowing every one to buy from 

any country without paying duty. Still 

Others would collect only such duties as 

would yield taxes enough to support the government; 

that is, a tariff for revenue only. 

Another issue is civil service reform. The old 

practice started by Jackson of giving the victorious 

party all the offices was seen to have bad ^. ., 

^ ■' ^ ^ Civil service 

effects. There are thousands of positions 
under the government, such as those of clerks and 
letter carriers, that demand training. When men 
have gained this training, it is not fair to them or good 
for the service to put them out of office because they 
happened to vote the losing ticket in an election. 

With these and many other new issues coming to 
the front, the people came to depend less upon the 
heroes of the war to lead them in politics. General 
Grant served two terms, and was followed by two other 
generals, Hayes and Garfield. 

Garfield served but a short while. For a second 
time the pages of our history were stained by an 
assassin. Within four months after his inauguration 
Garfield was shot by a disappointed office-seeker. 
The wounded President lingered on through the 
summer, but it was impossible to save his life. 

Garfield was succeeded by Vice President Arthur, 
who was not a warrior, but a lawyer. He was a hearty 
believer in civil service reform. During his presi- 



20O THE GREAT WEST 

dency the Civil Service Act was passed. It closed 
certain government positions to all but those who 
passed an examination, and forbade the removal of 
employees on account of their politics. 

The next President was another lawyer, Grover 
Cleveland, the first Democrat to be elected in over a 
quarter of a century. Cleveland has the distinction of 
being the only President to serve two separate terms. 
He was three times a candidate, but the second time 
was defeated by Benjamin Harrison. Cleveland's 
defeat was due largely to the fact that he boldly stated 
his views on the tariff. He believed that the tariff 
should be lowered. In course of time more people 
agreed with him, and he was returned to his high office. 

Not all the political questions of these years were 
concerning home affairs. Several important events 
affected our foreign relations. We shall 
affairs speak of two. In 1893 a matter that had 

been for a long time under dispute be- 
tween the United States and England, was finally 
settled. It involved our rights over seal hunters in 
the waters about Alaska. It was decided partly 
against us and partly in our favor. The other matter 
concerned us because it threatened a violation of 
our Monroe Doctrine. For years the boundary line 
between Venezuela and British Guiana had been 
under dispute. Upon the appeal of President 
Cleveland England agreed to submit the subject 
to arbitration. 



FOREIGN AFFAIRS 201 

Both these instances helped to show the nations of 
the world how much better it is to arbitrate disputes 
than to settle them by wasteful warfare. And yet the 
very next chapter in our history finds us engaged in 
deadly conflict with a foreign nation. 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

The period following the Civil War was chiefly 
remarkable for the amazing development of the coun- 
try west of the Mississippi. Although settlement had 
been going on for years, there had been certain marked 
movements of people westward. 

The first of these followed the close of the War of 
1812. The second was the result of the discovery of 
gold in California in 1848 and in the Rocky Mountains 
in 1859. 

Now a third movement came at the close of the 
Civil War, when the old soldiers, and others, were 
encouraged to go west by the Homestead Act, which 
gave land to home-builders. The pioneering stage 
was about over. The early trails had developed 
into substantial roadways. The Atlantic and the 
Pacific coasts were now connected by a through line 
of railroad. 

Throughout all the years of settlement, the ground 
was disputed by the Indians, but there were few of 
them compared with the host of white men who 
claimed the land. The Indians broke forth in occa- 
sional uprisings, but were each time defeated and 
compelled to live within the reservations allotted to 
them. 



202 



THE GREAT WEST 



Thus were developed great states throughout the 
West, and one after another they were admitted into 
the Union. The United States extended its territory 
even beyond these states by purchasing from Russia 
for the sum of ?7, 200, coo, the extensive region of 
Alaska in the far north. 



m^v-^-5tei-'-r s H p o s- 




eCALE OF MILES 
100 200_300 400 



States west of the Mississippi 



The struggle with nature took many forms besides 
the conflicts in pioneering. Lofty bridges were built 



NATIONAL GROWTH 203 

across turbulent rivers. Levees were built at the 
mouth of the Mississippi so that large ships could 
carry the growing commerce. Time was nearly anni- 
hilated when Cyrus Field gained for America the honor 
of laying the first ocean cable across the Atlantic. 

On the other hand, disaster came in various forms. 
Chicago and Boston suffered heavy losses from fire. 
Charleston was wrecked by an earthquake. Johns- 
town was torn to pieces by a flood. 

In politics, during the period following the Civil 
War, the tariff, civil service reform, and other issues 
replaced those growing out of the war. The Presi- 
dents from 1869 to 1901 were, in succession: Grant, 
Hayes, Garfield, Arthur, Cleveland, Harrison, Cleve- 
land, McKinley. Cleveland was a Democrat; all the 
others were Republicans. 

Cleveland, in vigorous language, stated the Monroe 
Doctrine to England in the matter of her relations 
with Venezuela. This and other differences were 
settled by arbitration. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

Gold was discovered in California in 1848. 
Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. 

Bibliography 

Boone. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. 

Holland: Historic Boyhoods. 

Morris: Historical Tales. 

Roosevelt and Lodge: Hero Tales. 

Tappan: American Hero Stories. 
Carson. — Bouve: American Heroes and Heroines. 

Tappan: American Hero Stories. 



204 THE GREAT WEST 

Custer. — Custer: The Boy General. 

Charleston. — Southern Stories Retold from St. Nicholas. 

Field. — Lane: Triumphs of Science. 

Mowry: American Inventions and Inventors. 
Gold. — Wright: Children's Stories of American Progress. 

General. — Bass: Stories of Pioneer Life. 

Drake: Making of the Great West. 

Garland: Boy Life on the Prairie. 

Kingsley: Westward Ho! 



CHAPTER X 
SPANISH WAR 

"Battleship Maine blown up in Havana harbor! 

260 lives lost!" These were the flaming headlines 

borne by the morning papers of February 

^ ^ ^ . r 1 . Destruction of 

16, 1898. A tremor of horror swept over ^j^^ Maine 

the country as the people realized the 
sudden and awful death into which their loyal sailors 
had been hurled. In addition, there was the sus- 
picion that Spain was in some way responsible for 
the disaster. 

Even before this happened, the Americans had been 
indignant toward Spain. The people of Cuba were in 
revolt against the Spanish government, 
and their misfortunes aroused keen sym- 
pathy. For the previous fifteen years the island of 
Cuba had suffered greatly from Spanish misrule. 
From time to time the Cubans had rebelled, only to 
be subdued again with increased cruelty. In 1895, 
driven to desperation, they set up a government of 
their own and declared their independence. 

Spain made General Weyler military governor of 
Cuba. Under him the Cubans suffered far more than 
the ordinary hardships of warfare. Peaceful work- 



2o6 SPANISH WAR 

men were slain on their way to labor. Many a man, 
returning at nightfall, found his wife and children gone 
and his home in ashes. Most horrible of all, crowds 
of peasants were driven from their homes and herded 
in towns, where many died of fever or starvation. The 
American newspapers were filled with stories of Cuban 
sufferings, and the magazines printed pictures of 
starving children. Such conditions at our very door- 
step pulled mightily on our heartstrings. 

The battleship Maine had been sent to Havana 
harbor as a refuge for any of our citizens who might 
The United ^e endangered by the Cuban revolution. 
States takes Examination showed that its destruction 
action j^^(j been caused by the explosion of a 

mine under water. That this could happen was one 




The Maine 

more proof that Spain was unable to maintain order 
in Cuba. 

Congress took prompt action. On April 20, 1898, 
Spain was ordered to give up Cuba and to remove all 
her forces from the island. President McKinley sent 



DECLARATION OF WAR 207 

a special message to Congress, saying: "In the name 
of humanity, in the name of civilization, in behalf of 
endangered American interests, which give us the 
right and the duty to speak and act, the war in Cuba 
must stop." America then began war in defense of 
her suffering neighbor. This youthful nation gave 
of its robust strength to protect the weak and 
oppressed. 

Spain was in a trying position. Though France, 
Germany, and Austria were not especially friendly to 
us and, it was feared, might support Spain, Great 
Britain immediately placed herself on our side. This 
showed the three countries that it would be wise to 
let Spain and the United States settle their difficulty 
alone. To add to Spain's troubles, the Philippine 
Islands, her most treasured possession in the East, 
were also in revolt. 

It was there that the first important engagement of 
the Spanish-American War took place. When war 
was yet but a rumor. Commodore Dewey was at 
Hongkong. Here he was advised by secret message 
to make ready for action. That meant to take on as 
much coal as possible and to drill his men rigidly. 
Later, he must get out the paint pots, and change to 
a dull slate color his white ships, beautiful in time of 
peace, but too good a target in time of war. 

On April 24 he received the following cablegram 
from the Secretary of the Navy: "War has com- 
menced between Spain and the United States. Pro- 



2o8 SPANISH WAR 

ceed at once to Philippine Islands. Commence opera- 
tions at once, particularly against Spanish fleet. You 

must capture vessels or destroy. Use ut- 
War begun 

most endeavors." With the promptness 

of long training Dewey made for Manila harbor. 

The entrance to the harbor is divided by an island 
into two channels, and is guarded by strong forts. By 
midnight of April 30 the American squadron, but 
dimly lighted, was stealing single file into the south 
channel of the bay. It seemed to the sailors that 
the Spaniards must surely hear them. To their 
anxious ears every sound was magnified as the mo- 
ments crept by. Their hearts beat wildly with excite- 
ment. Farther and farther in they crept, in the 
terrifying darkness, knowing not at what minute the 
enemy might open fire on them from fort or fleet. 
Worse, at any moment they might strike a submarine 
mine and be hurled into eternity. An officer whis- 
pered that surely the entire garrison must be asleep. 
Strange indeed, that their progress was unhindered. 

Swiftly, as is the way In the tropics, the dawn broke, 

and radiant daylight shone about them, revealing, 

close by, the city of Manila and its 

,f .! °« wharves. At five o'clock the shore bat- 
Manila Bay 

teries and the Spanish squadron stationed 
along the coast opened a heavy fire. The only reply 
at first was the sudden display of the flag, " Remember 
the Maine.'' Dewey waited until the ships were 
within close range. Then he turned to Captain 



BATTLE OF MANILA BAY 209 

Gridley, who was waiting anxious, expectant, for the 
order that came so quietly, "You may fire when you 
are ready." 

Instantly, from the Olympia, which was in the lead, 
there belched forth a mighty volume of destruction. 
Directly abreast of the rapidly-firing enemy Dewey 
led his ships, then back again. Once more across 
their lines, and back again, the American squadron 
went, firing as rapidly as men and guns could work. 
The enemy returned the fire with great vigor. Though 
our vessels were better than theirs, the Spaniards 
possessed the advantage of their shore batteries. Yet 
the strength of their position was not proof against 
the American war horse of steel and his breath of fire. 

Up in the turret were the men who did the work, 
six of them to each gun. Crowded into a small space, 
beneath a blistering tropical sun, stripped to the 
waist, they responded, each to his own particular 
call — "Sponge," "Load," "Point," "Fire." Then 
would leap forth a flame of destruction, and the gun- 
ners, blinded by smoke, gasping for air, would make 
ready for the next blast. 

At half past seven Dewey, out of consideration for 
his men, who had been on duty since four o'clock, 
ceased firing and drew back from the shore. His 
orders were, "Let the men go to breakfast." At 
eleven they returned to complete their work. Like 
monsters hurling bolts of flame at one another the two 
fleets and the shore batteries were once more in the 



2IO 



SPANISH WAR 



throes of battle. Soon the Spanish flagship and 
many other ships were in flames. Of our warships 
none was lost or even seriously injured. The victory 
was complete. The news of this battle was received 
with enthusiasm. To the commodore were tendered 
the thanks of Congress, and later he was made 
admiral. 




The Dewey medal presented by Congress to those who took part in the 
battle of Manila Bay 



But to destroy the fleet was not sufficient ; men and 
reenforcements were needed to take Manila and hold 
it. Until they came, Dewey's position was full of 
danger. When they finally arrived, our hold upon 
the Philippines was assured, and people began at once 
to discuss the commercial value of this group of 
islands. 

Meanwhile, throughout the Atlantic, the American 
spyglass searched in vain for the Spanish squadron 
under Cervera, last seen on April 29 at the Cape 
Verde Islands. It was generally believed that the 



BLOCKADE OF SANTIAGO 



211 



Spanish commander was making for Cuba. Yet for 
two weeks the most vigilant eye failed to see the 
smoke of his ships along the horizon. 
Commodore Schley had been sent to play 



Blockade of 
Santiago 



"I spy." It took him until May 28 to 
find Cervera, who had succeeded in making the har- 
bor of Santiago, in Cuba. Acting Rear-Admiral 
Sampson, who had been blockading Havana, brought 
his ships to join Schley's, and took command of the 
entire fleet. 




Entrance to Santiago harbor 

The entrance to the harbor of Santiago is so narrow, 
and was so well defended, that a direct attack was 
out of the question. The situation called for clever 
strategy. Naval Constructor Hobson undertook to 
complete the blockade of the harbor by sinking an 
American vessel across its narrowest part. This 
would make Cervera a prisoner in his own place of 
refuge. For the purpose, Hobson was given the Mer- 



212 SPANISH WAR 

rimac, and he proceeded to clear her of crew and 
equipment. To sink the ship by opening her sea 
Aalves, was too slow. In order to hasten the sinking, 
torpedoes, to be fired by electricity, were attached to 
her hull. Thus prepared, the ship was to be run into 
position. Then the anchors were to be dropped and 
the torpedoes fired. The vessel, it was hoped, would 
sink immediately. 

Volunteers to man the ship were called for. It 
was explained that the work meant certain death, or 
at best imprisonment, yet scores pressed forward, 
eager to serve their country. Regardless of the 
danger, they clamored for this special privilege. 
Only seven of the large number of volunteers were 
taken. The little crew rehearsed the details of the 
plan again and again. Each man knew his post and 
his duty. 

Soon after midnight, June 3, the Merrimac, at 
full speed, entered the mouth of the harbor. As soon 
as she was recognized, shot and shell bombarded her 
sides and splintered her decks, but no man faltered. 
When the critical moment arrived to whirl her around 
and place her directly across the narrow entrance, it 
was found that her steering gear had been shot away 
and she could not be brought into position. The 
next setback was the failure of some of the torpedoes 
to explode. 

Prone upon the deck lay Lieutenant Hobson and 
his faithful men, realizing that their scheme had mis- 



BLOCKADE OF SANTIAGO 213 

carried and that they were, perhaps, giving their lives 
for a failure. Not until the waves came over the 
bow, and the Merrimac, with a mighty tremor, set- 
tled in the deep, did they abandon her. Protected 
by life preservers, they clung to a floating raft. 
Often they had to sink into the water to chin level to 
prevent detection in the flashes from the Spanish 
search lights. At dawn, seeing that escape was im- 
possible, Hobson hailed a Spanish craft and presently 
the eight men were pulled aboard, prisoners of war. 

Their captors recognized the bravery of the little 
band and generously fed and clothed them. As they 
left the boat to be transferred to the Spanish prison, 
Hobson expressed his appreciation of Spanish cour- 
tesy. At the same time one of his men stepped for- 
ward and, on behalf of the crew, asked Lieutenant 
Hobson to convey their thanks to the Spanish crew. 
This display of good manners greatly impressed the 
enemy's officers. Hobson assured them that his sail- 
ors were but the type of American seaman. Such 
is the spirit and bearing of the American men before 
the mast. 

While this had been going on the government had 
been raising an army to send to Santiago. More 
than 200,000 responded to President 
McKinley's call for volunteers. From cuba^'""^ '"^ 
all quarters they poured in. Among 
them were the cowboy of the West, the young man of 
fashion, the college youth — all sorts and conditions. 



214 



SPANISH WAR 



Yet war found them sharing one another's tents and 
carrying one another's burdens. 

After the men landed in Cuba, the real hardships 
of war began. Santiago is six miles inland. Thither 
the soldiers pushed with all possible haste. The 
march developed into a wearisome 
struggle. The road proved to be 
a narrow, overgrown path. The 
intense tropical sun beat down like 
the heat of an oven. The pack be- 
came an unbearable weight. Pres- 
ently the men were discarding their 
blankets, then their cans of meat 
and vegetables, — as much as they 
dared. But with nightfall came a 
sudden change of temperature. Men 
awoke shivering in the early dawn, 
only by noontide to suffer again 
that awful heat. Frequently sheets 
of cold stinging rain drenched them to the skin and 
chilled them to the bone. To plough through the 
deep mud meant tired muscles and weary backs. 
There is little wonder that many of our men never 
saw the battlefield, never felt the thrill of action, but 
died of fever in camp or hospital. 

The city of Santiago was protected by the fortifi- 
cations on two hills, El Caney and San Juan. On 
the top of El Caney's hill stood an ancient fortress, 
quaint in structure but sufficiently well equipped with 




American soldier 



THE ARMY IN CUBA 



215 



modern artillery to shatter the ranks of the Ameri- 
cans. About it the Spaniards had dug a trench for 
further protection. 

The advance began in the early morning of July i. 
As the army progressed, it became necessary to aban- 
don the heavier arms. The men 
had to crawl on their hands and 
knees, for from every thicket Span- 
ish sharpshooters picked off the 
boldest of the advancing soldiers. 
When one man fell, another leaped 
to fill his place, but it was slower 
work than they had expected. 

The commanding oflficer had 
hoped to make a quick dash and a 
brilliant capture, yet it was noon- 
time and the work was still to be 
done. The men were chafing with 
suppressed excitement. In the 
face of a deadly fire they pushed on and on, now in 
one mighty rush, now in another. Finally at seven in 
the evening the flag of surrender floated in the breeze. 
Of the fort's defence, only one officer and four men re- 
mained unhurt. Both sides expressed admiration of 
each other's bravery. The Americans marveled that 
the Spanish had held out so long, and the Spanish 
officer spoke of the wild impetuosity of the American 
men who had dashed forward, their breasts bare, a sure 
target for the Spanish aim. 




Spanish officer 



2l6 



SPANISH WAR 



Meanwhile, at San Juan a similar fight under 
almost the same conditions had taken place. There 
was a high hill, with its intrenched stronghold, this 
time a well fortified farmhouse, the same difficult ap- 
proach, the same blistering sun. The enemy had the 




Spanish blockhouse on San Juan Hill 

advantage in position and in knowledge of the land. 
To the i\mericans it seemed an endless uphill climb, 
through dragging underbrush and sweltering heat. 
Loathsome insects pestered the men, and heavy 
clothing added to their discomfort. It was a battle 
of individual bravery, of the grit of men. The sol- 
diers love to tell of old General Wheeler, who had 
last seen action on the Southern side in the Civil 
War. Ill and half-crazed with the heat of the sun, 



ATTACK ON SANTIAGO 217 

he cried out, as he saw the blockhouse fall, ''There 
go the Yankees. Give it to them, boys!" The gal- 
lant spirit of his youth was in that cry, and the "boys" 
responded to it with a will. 

At length the fort gave way and the Americans 
took possession. Early the next morning, the Span- 
iards tried to win back yesterday's losses. But the 
Americans, though still weary, were up and ready for 
action at the first call. This time they were defending, 
and it made them cool and sure. 

General Cervera, who had been held in the harbor 
by Sampson's fleet, now attempted to escape. Then, 
on July 3, occurred the second of the two great naval 
engagements of this war. In four hours Cervera's 
fleet was utterly destroyed. He lost 600 men, killed 
and wounded, while the American loss was one man 
killed and one wounded. 

Following this victory, our army demanded the 
surrender of Santiago. This was refused. Then it 
was threatened that by noon of the fifth our army 
would bombard the town. So, from the city, there 
began a pitiable procession of nearly 20,000 half- 
starved women, wasted children, and tottering old 
men. Many of them were sheltered and protected 
by the x^merican army. This meant sacrifice on the 
part of the American soldiers, for their own supplies 
were meager. 

The luster of this war is surely dimmed when one 
considers the useless suffering caused by the careless- 



2i8 SPANISH WAR 

ness of the commissary department. Supplies were 
inadequate and their transportation poorly managed. 
Much of the suffering of the war might have been 
avoided. At best, war Is horrible. The glory and ex- 
citement do not come to all. Those who He for long 
hours, motionless In a steaming trench, suffer as much 
as the wounded on the battlefield. Inaction Is some- 
times harder to bear than pain. To the man shot down 
In battle It seems a long time before his eyes catch the 
gleam of the red cross which means help and care. 

The Red Cross Society works on the battlefield or 

wherever terrible destruction reigns. It was founded 

In 1863, and now nearly all nations are 

„^ . , represented In It. Its doctors and nurses 

Society ^ 

know no enemy. They are permitted 
the freedom of the battle lines, and their emblem, a 
red cross upon a white field, protects them and their 
property. Thus it happens that the dying soldier 
may look up Into the face of a soft-voiced woman. 
On her arm the red cross shows, and over her counte- 
nance shines the light of an unselfish spirit. The 
young lad, and many such there are in camp hospitals, 
finds a sympathetic hand clasping his as he bids a 
cheerful good-by to the limb which the surgeon says 
must come off. Messages are sent home for those 
who are too weak to write, and the hand that pens 
them Is that of the Red Cross nurse. Many and 
varied are her duties, and In like proportion are the 
thanks and affection she receives. 



RED CROSS SOCIETY 



219 



" For we know that wherever the battle was waged, 
With its wounded and dead and dying — 
Where the wrath of pagan or Christian raged — 
Like the mercy of God, where the battle was waged, 
The Red Cross flag was flying." * 




A Red Cross tent 



The hopelessness of the situation became appar- 
ent to the Spaniards, and on July 17 they surrendered 
Santiago. At the first stroke of noon, from the 
flagpole above the red-tiled roof of the Spanish 

* J. T. Napier: The Red Cross Flag. 



220 SPANISH WAR 

palace, the red and yellow flag of Spain fluttered 
down from its proud place. Before the final stroke 
had sounded, the Red, White, and Blue waved in the 
breeze. The troops came to order. The band played 
the " Star Spangled Banner " ! 

In December, the treaty of peace was signed. 
By it Cuba became a free country, though she was 
placed under the protection of the United 
States. In 1902 our care was no longer 
necessary, and Cuba, the republic, took her own place 
among the nations. By the same treaty Spain 
ceded to the United States: Porto Rico, of the West 
Indies, which our troops had invaded; Guam, one 
of the Ladrone Islands, which our navy had seized; 
and the Philippines, the scene of Dewey's victory. 

So have we grown from the Atlantic to the Pacific 
and then beyond to a point of vantage whence we 
may look out upon the eastern world. As we have 
increased our territorial possessions so have we 
added to that vast number of true-hearted patriots 
who are loyal to ''Old Glory." 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

The people of Cuba revolted against Spanish rule, 
and in 1895 declared their independence. The United 
States hesitated to interfere, although her sym- 
pathies were with the Cubans, who had been shame- 
fully ill-treated by Spain. But early in 1898 our 
battleship Maine, lying peacefully in the harbor of 
Havana, was blown up. 




(22l) 



222 SPANISH WAR 

The United States declared war against Spain in 
April and proceeded to search out the Spanish fleets 
in the Atlantic and in the Pacific. Admiral Dewey, 
in the Pacific, made a speedy attack upon the Spanish 
fleet in Manila Bay, defeated it, and captured the 
city of Manila. Admiral Sampson, with Schley 
second in command, blockaded the Spanish squadron 
in Santiago and utterly destroyed it when it at- 
tempted to escape. 

At the same time land operations were going on in 
Cuba. Santiago was besieged and forced to surrender. 
By the treaty, signed in December, Cuba was made 
free, and the United States gained Porto Rico, Guam, 
and the Philippines. 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

The War with Spain, 1898, was caused by cruel treatment of 
the Cubans by the Spaniards. 

During the Spanish War, Manila and Santiago were taken, 
and at the close Cuba was freed, Porto Rico was ceded to the 
United States, and the Philippines were bought from Spain. 

Bibliography 

Barton. — Foote and Skinner: Makers and Defenders of 

America. 
Dewey. — Beebe: Four American Naval Heroes. 

Johnson: Hero of Manila. 
McKinley. — Stratemeyer: American Boys' Life of William 

McKinley. 
Spanish War. — Abbot: Blue Jackets of '98. 

Allen: Cleared for Action. 

Austin: Uncle Sam's Soldiers. 

L. G. T. (Tisdale) : Three Years Behind the Guns. 

Matthews: Our Navy in Time of War. 




Stood shoulder to shoulder in salute" 



CHAPTER XI 
EXPANSION 

' ' I PLEDGE allegiance to my flag and to the Repub- 
lic for which it stands; one nation, indivisible, with 
liberty and justice for all." Throughout the length 
and breadth of our land, from Maine to California, 
from Minnesota to Texas, thousands of children daily 
pledge themselves to uphold the ''Stars and Stripes." 

It was an odd group of pupils that stood in a school- 
house in Manila on Washington's Birthday, 1900, 

and saluted the American flag, a gift 

The 
from the Lafayette Post of the Grand -,,.,. . 

•^ Philippines 

Army of the Republic. American chil- 
dren and Spanish, slant-eyed Chinese and dusky- 
skinned Filipinos, stood shoulder to shoulder in 
salute. Lustily their voices joined in singing **My 
Country, 'tis of Thee." And this scene was re- 
peated in the other thirty-five schools of the Philip- 
pine capital. 

When the United States established its govern- 
ment in Manila, one of the first things it did was to 
organize public schools. In time the chief islands of 

the Philippines were dotted with them. And now 

223 



224 



EXPANSION 



hundreds of American teachers are at work, not only 
educating the children, but also training the native 
men and women to become teachers of their own 
people. Thus in time will the people of these islands 
be able to govern themselves. It must be remem- 
bered that America did not wage war with Spain 
in order to gain territory for itself. But after the 
war was over it found itself with Pacific possessions 



\l 








Scene in the Philippines 



on its hands. It saw that before these people could 
successfully manage their own affairs they must be 
trained to respect law and order. Millions of dollars 
have been spent by the United States in this work. 

Even under Spanish rule some of the Filipinos, 
led by Aguinaldo, had fought for their independence. 
Spain made a treaty with them and paid the leaders 
several thousand dollars on condition that they leave 
the Philippines. When, not long afterward. Admiral 



THE PHILIPPINES 225 

Dewey gained possession of Manila Bay, these leaders 
returned from their retreat in Hongkong. 

Soon Aguinaldo and his friends had some thousands 
of men in arms against the United States. They 
declared that they had been fighting for independence 
and not for a change of masters. Our soldiers routed 
them from place to place. Finally the Filipino armies 
disbanded, but only to begin a guerrilla form of war- 
fare. Fighting, not in the open, but in small groups 
scattered throughout the land, they would harry 
the American troops from ambush. It took several 
months to hunt them down and restore peace. Agui- 
naldo was captured. Soon afterwards he took the 
oath of allegiance. Other insurgent leaders were won 
over ; in fact, some of them are now governors of Phil- 
ippine provinces. Thus the Filipinos are well started 
on the road to self-government and independence. 

The Philippines and the island of Guam, which also 
came to us as a result of the Spanish War, are not 
our only Pacific possessions. In 1893 the 
people of the Hawaiian Islands overthrew 
their royal government and established a republic. 
The following year this republic was recognized by our 
country. Five years later Hawaii was annexed, and 
in 1900 it was made a territory of the United States. 

To-day one must journey very nearly halfway 
around the globe to go from America's most eastern 
territory, Porto Rico, to her most western, the Philip- 
pines. One result of this expansion is that the 



2 26 EXPANSION 

United States has become a " world power." Now, as 
never before, the other nations of the earth must 
reckon with her. And we may be proud 
of the way in which America has exercised 
her new-found power. For one thing, she has taken 
her full part with the other nations in their dealings 
with China. She insisted upon* the plan of the '' open 
door." Through it America has the same privileges to 
trade w^ith China that are given to any other country. 
In 1900 the United States joined with Great 
Britain, Germany, France, Italy, and Japan in putting 
down an uprising of the Boxers. The Boxers were a 
Chinese society that planned to wage w^ar upon the 
foreigners living in China. They committed many 
murders and threatened to kill all the foreigners in 
Peking. But the six nations acted promptly. They 
moved their allied forces upon the Chinese capital. 
The city was taken, the foreigners rescued, and peace 
restored. More than 15,000 American troops took 
part in this movement. 

Another movement in which America has been 
active is that for the establishment of peace. Wars 
have been waged ever since men have in- 
ague our j^^i^j^g^j ^^g earth. Probably, too, war 
will continue to be the only way of settling certain 
kinds of disputes. But surely much of our warfare 
has been senseless. Long ago individuals among 
civilized people learned to settle their differences by 
taking them before a judge. There they argue the 



THE HAGUE COURT 



227 



matter, and then abide by the decision of the court. 
If individuals can in this way avoid fighting, why 
cannot nations? The Czar of Russia invited the 
nations to discuss the question. In 1899 delegates 
from twenty-six countries met for conference at The 







The Peace Palace, at The Hague 



Hague. The United States took an active part in 
this meeting as well as in another that followed. A 
court was organized to which nations might take their 
disputes for arbitration. The United States and A^lexico 
were the first to take a case before the Hague Court. 
In yet another direction the United States has 
completed a work of great importance to all nations. 



2 28 EXPANSION 

For years people studied their maps of the western 

continent and sighed to think of the time and effort 

, that had been spent in going from ocean 

PSLTlSLTtiSL CeIIEI o o 

to ocean by way of Cape Horn. Across 
the narrow isthmus that joins the two Americas it is 
but a few' miles. If only a waterway could be cut 
through here, what a saving it would be! 

This was brought home to us very forcibly during 
the Spanish War. The battleship Oregon, built in 
San Francisco, started to reenforce Sampson's fleet 
in Cuban waters. With all possible speed she raced 
the fifteen thousand miles around the Cape and 
arrived in time to take part in the battle of Santiago. 
But her trip gave our government much uneasiness 
because, for days at a time, it could not know how 
she was faring. Perhaps she had been overtaken by 
the Spanish fleet and, single-handed as she was, sent 
to her destruction. Could she have cut across the 
isthmus she would have made the trip in much less 
time and with less danger. 

The project of cutting through the isthmus was not 
a new one. A French company worked at the prob- 
lem for years, but without success. Our government 
saw that, if it were possible to construct a water 
highway between the two oceans, there would be an 
immense advantage in owning it. Forty million dol- 
lars was paid to the French company for its rights 
and property and ten million dollars more to the 
Republic of Panama for a strip of land ten miles 



PANAMA CANAL 



229 



wide, known as the Canal Zone. Here was under- 
taken, at the further expense of hundreds of milHons 
of dollars, the enormous task of cutting out of earth 
and solid rock a lock canal large enough to accom- 
modate the giant ships of commerce and the dread- 
noughts of war. 

The canal is really a bridge of water, thirty-four 
miles long and eighty-seven feet above the ocean level. 
Near the Pacific end there is a mountain range. A 
cut had to b^made through this mountain, and a ridge 
built up on the Atlantic end. So millions of tons of 
rock and earth had to be dug out — the Gaillard Cut, 




At work in the Gaillard Cut 

as it is known — transported thirty miles, and built 
into an enormous wall — the Gatun Dam. 

It was a huge undertaking, probably the most re- 
markable of modern times, but after eight years. 



230 



EXPANSION 



American pluck and American brains brought it to 
a successful end. It was opened to traffic in 1914. 
Many were the heroes who took part in this struggle 
with nature under the magnificent leadership of 
Colonel George W. Goethals, of the United States 
army, the engineer in charge. 

The locks are opened and closed by electricity, and 
the ships are towed through them by electric loco- 
motives. Although the canal is heavily fortified 




Towing a steamship through the locks on the Panama Canal 

against possible attack, it will be open for the com- 
merce of all countries, and it is hoped that it will 
serve as one link in a chain of peace binding the nation? 
of the world. 

Thus, in many directions our republic has been ex- 
panding. Its interests now reach out far beyond the 
boundaries of the nation of a few years ago. Along 



DOMESTIC AFFAIRS 231 

with this expansion, important events have been 
occurring at home. One of them concerns the place 
of women in politics. Wyoming is the 
state that first gave its women the same guffra^^ 
right to vote that it gives its men. To- 
day about one fourth of all the states grant the 
suffrage to women. 

The Spanish War brought forward a question for 
debate: How shall we dispose of our new^ possessions? 

Then, too, there has been much argu- ^ ,. . 
' ' . . ^ PoUtics 

ment over the tariff, over the coinage of 

gold and silver, over "trusts," and over many other 

matters. 

The people seemed to approve President McKinley's 
handling of the Spanish War, for they elected him for 
a second term. They were not long to have him as 
their President, however. Once again the hand of an 
assassin did its ugly work. President McKinley was 
shot w^hile holding a reception at the Pan-American 
Exposition in Buffalo. He died eight days later. 
For the third time the people of the United States 
mourned a martyred President. 

Theodore Roosevelt succeeded to the presidency, 
and at the end of the term was reelected. He was 
followed by another Republican, William H. Taft, 
who had served as a judge, as governor of the Philip- 
pines, and in other offices. The campaign of 19 12 
brought forward a new party, the Progressive, which 
nominated Roosevelt in opposition to the Republican 



232 EXPANSION 

renomination of Taft. For the first time in twenty 
years the Democrats won. Woodrow Wilson, gover- 
nor of New Jersey, became the twenty-seventh Presi- 
dent of the United States. He was reelected in 191 6. 

Of the many events during these latest years only 
a few of the more important are noted here. In 
1902 the workmen in the anthracite coal mines in 
Pennsylvania — nearly 150,000 in number — struck, 
demanding better wages and hours. A coal famine 
was threatened, for the strike lasted five months. It 
was finally settled through the efforts of President 
Roosevelt, who induced the miners and their employers 
to submit their differences to arbitration. 

There have been from time to time many other 
labor difficulties in various parts of the country. How 
to settle them with justice to every one 
, . concerned — the laborer, the employer, 

and the people who buy the products — 
is a difficult problem. It has yet to be solved, but 
steps have already been taken toward its solution. 
There are many labor organizations that seek to se- 
cure better conditions for their members. The larg- 
est of all is the American Federation of Labor, formed 
in 1 88 1. In 1903 Congress created the Department 
of Commerce and Labor, and ten years later divided 
this work into two departments, that of Commerce 
and that of Labor. 

Several wise laws have been passed during these 
years. One provides that when a person sells certain 



AVIATION 



233 



kinds of goods and drugs he must tell honestly what 
they are. He is forbidden to sell adulterated goods 
under false names. Another law provides for the 
inspection of meats and other foods by officials of the 
government so that people may be sure that what 
they buy is fit to eat. 

In invention America has contributed her full 
share, particularly in the field of electricity. Among 
her many ingenious inventors, Thomas 
A. Edison has a foremost place. His 
numerous productions, such as the phonograph and 
the arc light, have gained for him the title of the 
Wizard. But it is in 
the conquest of the 
air that the United 
States has perhaps 
the clearest claim 
to first place. As 
early as 1900, two 
brothers, Wilbur 
and Orville Wright, 
living in Ohio, ex- 
perimented with 
aeroplanes. They 
designed their first 
machine in 1903. 
Five years later they ^" aeroplane 

made successful flights at Fort Al^^er, a government 
proving-ground near Washington. 




234 EXPANSION 

Since 1900 three of our great cities have been 
visited with severe disasters. The first was a hurri- 
cane at Galveston; the second, a fire at Baltimore; 
and the third, an earthquake at San Francisco and 
in neighboring places. In 19 12 floods 
broke through the levees on the lower 
Mississippi. In all these disasters, people were made 
homeless, some were killed, and property worth millions 
of dollars was lost. But in each case the hearts of the 
people throughout the land were stirred to sympathy, 
and they gladly aided their unfortunate countrymen. 
Since 1900, too, the family of states has been 
enlarged by the admission of three. Oklahoma, ad- 
mitted in 1907, and New Mexico and 
New stftt&s 

Arizona, in 19 12, bring the total to forty- 
eight, a number not likely to be changed for many 
years. 

We call this latest period our period of Expansion. 
We have steadily pushed our influence eastward, 

westward, southward. Perhaps the 
Peary and the ... ^11 1 

ivT _^t. T^ 1 crownmg achievement has been a record 
North Pole ° 

of brave conquest over stupendous natural 
difficulties, the conquest of the far North. 

90° N. Lat., North Pole, 

April 6, 1909. 

"I have to-day hoisted the national ensign of 

the United States of America at this place, which 

my observations indicate to be the North Polar 

axis of the earth, and have formally taken posses- 



DISCOVERY OF THE NORTH POLE 235 

sion of the entire region, and adjacent, for and in 
the name of the President of the United States of 
America. 

"I leave this record and United States flag in 
possession. 

Robert E. Peary, 
United States Navy." 

Forty-eight stars now grace the blue field of our 
national emblem. We can only dream of the glories 
that await this flag. Surely they will stand in 
history alongside the triumphs of the past. 

"When Freedom, from her mountain height, 
Unfurled her standard to the air, 
She tore the azure robe of night, 
And set the stars of glory there!" * 

FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

The period following the Spanish War has been one 
of expansion — -our nation has extended its posses- 
sions east, south, and west. 

In the east Porto Rico came to us at the close of 
the war. In the south we bought control of the 
Canal Zone, where we have succeeded in the stu- 
pendous task of cutting a ship canal across the 
Isthmus of Panama. In the Pacific we have Hawaii, 
the Philippines, and a few other islands. In the north 
the many expeditions in search of the pole reached a 
successful conclusion in 1909, when Peary raised the 
American flag at the North Pole. 

* Drake: The American Flag. 



236 EXPANSION 

Along with this expansion the United States has 
gained a growing respect among the nations of the 
world. It has taken its part in world affairs. It has 
had its influence in gaining fair play for China. It 
has borne its share in establishing the Hague Court. 

Among the chief events at home have been labor 
troubles and strikes; the passage of laws which help 
to insure pure food and drugs; disasters from hurri- 
cane, fire, flood, and earthquake. The number of 
states in the Union has now reached forty-eight. 

In politics, the two Presidents following McKinley 
were Roosevelt and Taft, both Republicans. Then, 
with the election of Wilson, the Democrats returned 
to power for the first time in twenty years. 

Bibliography 

Aviation. — Burns: Story of Great Inventions. 

Holland: Historic Inventions. 
North Pole. — Peary: Children of the Arctic. 

Peary: Nearest the Pole. 

Peary: Snow Baby. 

Peary: The North Pole. 
Panama. — Hall: Panama and the Canal. 
Philippines. — Austin: Uncle Sam's Children. 




'The newcomers stand in patient groups, watching the others land" 



CHAPTER XII 
LIFE OF TO-DAY 

"Land! Land! I see land." 

"No! No!" 

' ' Yes ! Yes ! Yes ! America ! It is America ! ' ' 

Away down in the forward part of a great trans- 
atlantic steamer an excited group of little foreigners 
have been watching since early dawn to catch the first 
sight of the great western country. Now, tumbling 
and pushing against one another, they crowd close to 
the rail, each trying to get a peep of the dim outline 
along the horizon. 

' ' Mother ! Mother ! come quick. Here is America ! ' * 
A small boy breaks away from his comrades and pulls 
a tired-looking woman with a shawl about her head 
to the side of the boat, where, in the hazy distance, the 
faint outline of the New Jersey shore is seen. For 
seven days the huge ocean steamer has been plunging 
across the Atlantic. There are over a thousand cabin 
passengers on board, many of whom have crossed the 
ocean several times. For them it has been a pleasure 
trip, but for the hundreds in the steerage below, it 
means the beginning of a new life. Crowded to- 

237 



238 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

gether in small quarters, many of them seasick, they 

have patiently endured all discomforts for the sake 

of the better times that are to come. 

For a long time our big country has been a refuge 

for the downtrodden and oppressed of Europe. Since 

1880 immigrants have come to our shores 
Immigration 

at the rate of a half-million a year. At first 

they came from Great Britain, Ireland, and Ger- 
many; later, from Norway and Sweden. More re- 
cently it has been the peasants of Russia, Hungary, 
Italy, Greece, and other parts of southeastern Europe 
who have left their unhappy countries where taxes 
are high and wages low. There the poor laborer can 
earn scarcely enough to keep his family from starva- 
tion, and he has little hope of better things for his 
children. 

In the peasants' huts wonderful tales are told of 
the great United States. There men are free, — free 
to speak what they think without fear of government 
spies, free to go where they will, to live as they please, 
and even to take part in the making of the laws. 
Wages are higher and people kinder. So the eager 
families sacrifice everything to get money to cross the 
ocean. Sometimes a relative on this side of the water 
sends home a small amount that helps. The good-bys 
are sad indeed, for in most cases the immigrant never 
goes back to his old home. Even if he does, it is not 
likely to be in the lifetime of the old father and the 
feeble little mother. Nevertheless, so strong is the 



IMMIGRATION 



239 



parents' love that sons and daughters are sent away 
though the hearts of the old people break at the 
parting. 

How slowly the great ship steams up the bay! 
Plainer and plainer grows the distant shore; nearer 
and nearer it comes. Ah! there she is, that great tall 
lady whom people call the Goddess of Liberty. And 




Part of New York 

this is New York, the greatest city of the new world! 
How odd it looks against the blue sky! And where 
are the trees and the green grass of the homeland? 

The steamer slows down gradually, and carefully 
stretches its great length beside a huge wharf. Here 
crowds of excited people wave and call to their friends 
on board. But not yet may the eager foreigners step 
on the enchanted soil. The boxes and the bags and 
the trunks of the first- and second-class passengers 
must be taken off first. Their owners, too, go ashore 
before the immigrants are allowed to land. The new- 
comers, with their few possessions tied up in a bit of 



240 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

cloth, stand in patient groups watching the others 
land. How gay and happy the home-coming passen- 
gers seem! What beautiful clothes they wear, and 
how rich they must be! Fourteen-year-old Abie 
clasps tight the hand of his restless small brother and 
holds a little sister in the other arm. As he looks at 
his careworn mother, he vows in his heart that some 
day she shall have fine clothes like those of the lady 
who has just tripped lightly down the gangplank. 
Her hair shall be brushed until it shines and she shall 
wear a pretty hat upon her head. 

All of these gay people having departed, the immi- 
grants, little and big, are carried far down to Ellis 
Island. Here they are examined by a doctor. If 
one of them has a disease that might seriously hurt 
others, he is sent back to Europe, for America must 
guard the health of its people. The names, heights, 
and ages of all are taken. Each grown person must 
have a certain sum of money, he must know where 
he is going to live, and how he intends to make 
his living. 

All this sometimes occupies a whole day, but at 
last the strangers are freed. Now it is their turn to 
clasp the hands of friends, to kiss relatives, 
] and to laugh and cry for joy. The newly- 

landed strangers put themselves into the 
care of their guides. Then begins a series of strange 
experiences and rapid questions in many strange 
tongues. How tall the buildings are! Won't they 



LIFE IN THE CITY 



241 



fall over? Where do all the people come from, and 
why is everybody in so great a hurry? Abie, in a 
vain attempt to dodge out of one man's way, gets 
straight in the path of another, and small brother is 
knocked down. The New Yorker, instead of showing 
anger, stoops and sets the youngster on his feet, say- 
ing, ''There you are, sonny!" Are all i\mericans as 
kind as this? 




r^^ 



jj 



M[\ 




fe^^i^irJ^a -itoi 



I , n^ 




A city street 

Now it is time to cross a street, but how impossible 
it seems! Wagons, trucks, automobiles, clanging 
cars, all seem to be going every way at once. Sud- 
denly they stop and a clear path appears. There in 
the center stands a tall blue-coated figure. It is he 
who, by simply raising his hand, has brought this 
order. Abie soon learns both to fear and to respect 
the policeman. 



242 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

Having crossed the street, it is time for the party 
of immigrants to separate. Some are going far up 
town, almost outside the city limits, or to some other 
distant part of the city. Perhaps they go by the 
subway. What? Travel under the streets? Won't 
the earth fall in and crush you? And there is the 
elevated road. But that is nearly as bad, away up in 
the air. Surely the tracks will break, or the cars will 
fall off and come tumbling down into the street. Abie 
and the others of his family are piloted by their 
friends into an electric car. They stand in a corner; 
their bundles are in the way; the conductor scolds 
them. As he collects their fare he mutters something 
about "these foreigners." True, he has been here 
but a short time himself, but he already feels that he 
is a real American. 

It is not long before Abie and his family will have 

the same feeling. As fast as they can they buy new 

clothes of American cut. The children 

men an ^^^ ^^ .^^^ school immediately. At first 

schools ^ 

they are shy, for they cannot speak the 

language. But teacher is kind, and the other chil- 
dren soon stop laughing at them, and help them when- 
ever they can. Here they learn more wonderful things 
about this wonderful land. They are taught that 
this is a free country, but that freedom means respect 
for other people's rights. They must not injure the 
property or health of other people. 

They learn, too, to take better care of their own 



LIFE IN THE CITY 243 

health. A sick person, they find, will be taken to a 
hospital, where- he will be skillfully nursed. At first 
these strangers from other lands are afraid, when ill- 
ness comes, to let their loved ones out of their sight 
lest something dreadful happen to them. But they 
soon understand that the hospital is a better place 
than their crowded homes. Then, too, if the disease 
is contagious, by sending the patient away they save 
their friends and neighbors from danger. 

Much else, both in school and out, is new and 
strange. There seems to be no place for play but the 
crowded streets, where one must continually dodge 
wagons and automobiles. In the parks, where the 
green slopes look so tempting, there are signs which 
say, "Keep off the grass." Even the flowers are not 
to be picked. They bloom and blossom in brilliant 
rows, but they seem to say, "You dare not touch me." 
Other flowers there are, but they bud behind glass 
windows and are very expensive, — only the rich can 
buy them. 

The life of the great city is very different irom that 
of the country home which Abie left. Fruit is to be 
bought at a stand, not picked from a tree. Milk 
comes in a can or a bottle — one never sees a cow. 
Vegetables are sold either from carts along the curb 
or else out of boxes at a corner grocery store. No- 
body raises plants, except perhaps just a few in a pot 
or two on the window sill. Houses, houses every- 
where, with no fields or woods! So crowded, indeed, 



244 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

are some of the neighborhoods that two or three 

famiUes live in the same room. 

Even if there were space to plant growing things, 

there would be no time to tend them. From early 

morning until late at night all the family, 

.^Y . . except the small children, work in shop 

industries ^ , ^ 

or factory. There are great clothing 
houses where thousands of men and girls, as many as 
there are in a small city, cut, stitch at machines, or 
work by hand on all kinds of garments. There are 
great office buildings, twenty or more stories high. 
There are factories of all kinds. And there are the 
great stores where hundreds of people sell the myriad 
articles turned out by the factories. 

Sometimes the workers labor under bad conditions. 
The light is poor, the air foul, and there is not sufficient 
protection against fire. But the government is try- 
ing to bring about a better order of things, though it 
is an uphill task. Here and there are employers who 
have the true spirit of America. If you visit their 
establishments, you will see that they give much time 
and attention to the welfare of their employees. They 
provide bright workrooms and tasteful, quiet rest- 
rooms for both men and women, and classrooms, too, 
where the workers are taught to increase their useful- 
ness and so receive higher wages. Whoever learns 
how to do some one thing well can make his way. 

America has been called the "land of opportunity." 
Certain it is that in our big cities a very great deal is 



CITY INDUSTRIES 245 

done to help him who helps himself. There are day 
schools of all grades, and colleges, and evening classes 
for those who must work during the day. No one 
needs money in order to make the acquaintance of 
books. The public libraries, with their rooms crowded 
with volumes piled high to the ceiling in orderly rows, 
provide books in our own and other languages. 
Many of the library buildings are very handsome. 
The walls and ceilings in the Boston Public Library 
are decorated with paintings of exquisite beauty. 

In most of the cities, interesting and instructive 
lectures are given free to the public. Even to travel 
the length of one important thorough- 
fare, looking in the shop windows and 
reading the signs, is to learn many lessons in geog- 
raphy. We begin to realize what an immense foreign 
trade we have and how many people make their 
living by bringing the goods to us, and displaying 
them for sale. The soft gossamer-like silk you see 
in that show case came from China. Here is a leopard 
skin, spotted and tawny, brought from the jungles of 
Asia. Lying in a velvet case, all beautifully cut and 
polished, are diamonds dug from the dark earth by- 
dark-skinned men. The gems are carefully guarded 
each step of their journey from southern Africa to the 
importer's shop. A string of them costs as much as 
a laborer earns in a lifetime. Yet there are people 
rich enough to buy them. So much wealth is amassed 
in the great cities — Boston, New York, New Orleans, 



246 



LIFE OF TO-DAY 



San Francisco, Chicago, and the others — that the 

mind of the immigrant is staggered by the signs of 

riches. 

Many of the immigrants do not stay in the cities 

where they land, but go inland to the mill towns. 

In the country around the great city of 

, , Pittsburgh, given over to the manufac- 

manufacture & ' & 

ture of steel, there are many such 
towns. Here English, Irish, Scotch, and Germans 
gather in one group, a great number of Slavs in an- 
other, and some negroes in a third. 




Making crude iron 

The mill looms up, a large irregular structure. Its 
many stacks pour forth filthy black • smoke. Often 
the mills run day and night. The crude iron, as it 



STEEL MANUFACTURE 247 

comes from the blast furnaces, is taken to what is 
called the ''open hearth" department. Here huge 
furnaces, with their roaring fires, sead forth such a 
blinding glare that the workmen have to wear smoked 
glasses. Into these furnaces the crude iron is placed, 
mixed with scrap iron, ore, and certain chemicals. 
It is next fired to a melting heat. Then the furnaces 
are tapped and the metal is poured into molds to cool. 
When the steel is needed for use it is heated again and 
goes to huge machines called ''rolls." Powerful as 
giants, they turn out the great plates of metal from 
which are made the mighty dreadnoughts of war, the 
strong beams to support our skyscrapers, and the rails 
that carry our speeding trains across the continent. 

There is grave danger within the mills as well as 
about the network of railroad tracks outside the 
buildings. The men grow accustomed to the chug- 
ging engines with their heavy loads, and become 
careless. The intense heat of the furnaces causes 
great suffering among the workmen, sapping their 
strength in the summer time and making them catch 
cold easily in the winter. The noise in many of the 
rooms is so great that after some years of service the 
workman can no longer hear lighter sounds. 

But the men work cheerfully and happily. They 
put their hard-earned wages into their little homes. 
Most of these are small four-roomed cottages where 
love abounds. The dinner is ready for father when 
he returns at eventide. The best of the goodies is 



248 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

put aside for his dinner pail, for even the small children 

recognize how hard father works for them and how 

dangerous is the life of the steel mill. 

Another great industry that attracts thousands of 

our population is lumbering. There was a time 

when most of the lumber camps were to 
Lumbering , r 1 • tx t • t r 1 

be found m Mame. In tact, that state 

pictures the pine tree on her seal, with the motto/" I 
lead." When that region was partly exhausted, the 
center of the industry changed to the region about the 
Great Lakes. Now the great lumbering regions are 
the south and the far west. The states of the Pacific 
Coast are furnishing valuable woods, such as Oregon 
pine, California redwood, and Washington fir. The 
Navy Department has recommended that all the 
wood in our war vessels, except that used for deco- 
ration, be of fir. Even the masts on the German 
Emperor's racing yachts are from our great north- 
west. When you go to Windsor Castle, England, or 
to the Japanese Emperor's palace, you will see strange 
flags floating in the breeze above them, but the staff 
from which they flutter is American wood, stout 
Washington fir. 

In a logging camp in the far west, just as in a fac- 
tory, each man has his own part of the work to do. 
An expert selects the trees that are to be cut, and 
the way they are to fall. This he indicates by a notch 
in the side of the tree. Then come the two men called 
"fellers," with a long saw having a handle at each end. 



LUMBERING 



249 



As they saw well into the tree, the huge monarch of the 
forest sways, bends, and suddenly comes crashing to 
the ground with a terrific roar. So skillfully do they 
do their work that the tree falls within a few inches of 
the selected place. Next come the "buckers," who 
cut the tree into logs, and then the "barkers," who 
chop the bark from the side on which the log is to be 
dragged. After that the ''swampers" clear away a 
path for the logs, and the "hook tenders" fasten them 
by heavy hooks to a long cable. In the eastern camps, 
horses or oxen are used to pull the logs; but the great 
size of the western timber calls for something stronger, 
so a steam engine is made to do the work, by means 
of a big reel. 











3^ 




Cradle and raft 



At the river the logs are lifted by a derrick into a 
huge cradle. These cradle-rafts hold thousands of 



250 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

pieces of timber. The logs are securely bound with 
chains and cable. When all is in readiness, the cradle 
is taken away, and the raft, pulled by one or two tug- 
boats, goes floating down the river. The lumber- 
men wave their hats and shout a cheery good-by, for 
it is a huge piece of work which they have just 
completed. 

Life in a lumber camp has its excitements, but they 
are chiefly the excitements of danger. The men live 
busy, hard-working lives. In the great solitude of 
the forest they throw up their rude camps, shacks 
of logs, stuck together with mud. Shelves of rough 
boards built along the sides of the camp are their 
beds. Wrapped up in blankets, the men sleep on 
balsam or spruce boughs. In the dim cold light of 
the early morning they crawl out of their bunks and 
go to breakfast. They eat like ravenous wolves, and 
the cook, provided he is a good one, is a popular man. 
If, however, he should happen to lack culinary skill, 
his life is hardly worth the living, for these strong sons 
of the forest punish pretty severely when they think 
punishment is due. In the evening they sit indoors 
about a fire, in a hot close room, singing or playing 
games. Occasionally they go on Sunday for a tramp 
through the woods or, perhaps, hunting or fishing if 
the sport is good. 

Not all the workers in the life of to-day are in 
occupations that take them into the great out-of- 
doors. Some there are who must earn their daily 



MINING 



251 



Mining 



bread by going deep down into the earth. These 

are the miners. Into a great black hole in the side 

of a hill they go down, down to a region 

where no daylight enters. The coal miner 

carries a small light fastened to the front of his cap. 

With steam drill and pick he breaks the coal away 

from the sides of the tunnel. It is then placed in 




small cars and hauled, sometimes by donkeys, some- 
times by electricity, to the shaft. Here steam engines 
hoist it to the surface. The miner's hours are long. 
He comes out of the shaft black and grimy, bent and 
weary. He goes with dragging feet to his little home, 
which is black and smoke-covered like himself. 

But not the small wages, the long hours, nor the 
trying conditions can daunt the brave spirit of the 
miners. When disaster comes, as so often it does, they 
are ever ready to sacrifice themselves for their fellow 
workers. Eagerly they offer their services in the 
work of rescuing the men who may be crushed by a 



252 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

sudden cave-in of the tunnels, or drowning in a flooded 
mine chamber, or suffocating from the treacherous 
gases that are so difficult to detect before the miner 
is overcome. Into some mines, the workers carry 
canary birds in cages. These little singers of sun- 
shine are more quickly overcome by the gases than 
are their owners. So they give warning of the death 
presence. The miner hastily leaves the place and 
brings his feathered guardian to consciousness again. 
It is easy to understand how a close and tender rela- 
tion often exists between the rough black miner and 
the little yellow bird. 

Another mineral that is mined in great quantities 
is iron ore. The United States produces more iron, 
as well as more coal, than any other country in the 
world. Its great treasure house is about Lake Su- 
perior. There are various methods of mining iron ore, 
but the most interesting as well as the cheapest and 
best is the *'open-pit" method. Into the pit on the 
side of a mountain range, a train of railroad cars is 
run. Then a steam shovel like a giant's hand pushes 
its monster fingers into the bank, and clutches in one 
grip five tons of loose red earth that is in reality 
valuable ore. The mammoth arm withdraws its huge 
fist and deposits its handful in the waiting car. 
It fills the car in only five trips and can do it in five 
minutes. Ten or twelve men are needed to handle 
each shovel, some to run the engine, some to feed 
the fire, some to manage the levers. They are a 



THE GREAT FARMS 



253 



thrifty and Industrious class of men. Many of the 
iron miners are recent immigrants. Working under 
better conditions and better paid than the coal miners, 
they are more independent and progressive. 







An "open-pit" iron mine 

Still better conditions are found in the great harvest 
fields of the west. Instead of the cramped quarters 
of the mine tunnels, there are miles upon 
miles of waving grain, and the work 
is out in the blessed sunshine. Good 
hard work it is. One wheat farm will employ as 
many as four hundred or more men. They are di- 
vided into groups, and overseers on horses ride from 
group to group superintending their labors. At har- 
vest time the wheat is cut by reaping machines drawn 
by horses. Long rows of these machines sweep across 
the wide fields like a slowly moving chariot race. 



254 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

Sometimes on the largest farms, a combined reaper 
and thresher is drawn by many horses or even by a 
steam engine. Such a machine can gather and thresh 
two thousand tons of wheat a day. 



Reaper and thresher 

These huge farms of the prairies buy their machines 
by the car load and their pro\ isions in the same way. 
They must live independent of the big cities far away. 
Several bookkeepers keep the accounts; a store 
supplies the men's wants, which are not many. They 
are likely to save their money, for there are few ways 
of spending it. No theater or moving-picture house 
throws out bright lights against the evening dark- 
ness. Only the stars shine overhead. No public 
libraries open hospitable doors to the eager reader. 
The clang of the electric car is not to be heard. The 
men's boisterous laughter, as they gather together 
after the day's labor, sounds across the still air, and 
a horse in his stall whinnies an invitation to ride 
across the silent stretches in the close warm darkness. 

Just beyond these great farms is the ranching dis- 
trict. The ranchman thinks of two thins^s when he 



CATTLE RANCHES 255 

builds his house and cattle sheds. They must be far 

away from his neighbor so that the cattle may have 

plenty of grass, and they must be near 

water, both of which are scarce in the 

ranches 

ranching country. Sometimes a ranch- 
man owns as many as twenty thousand head of cattle. 
These he brands, or burns, with a special mark all his 
own, such as a circle with a 
cross in it. Then he per- 
mits them to roam at will. 
Generally they keep within 
easy distance, but some- 
times they stray away for 
as much as a hundred miles. 

Each year the ranchmen ^ ^ ^ _, 

■^ A branded cow 

gather all their cattle to- 
gether. This is called a round-up, and it is a time 
of much importance. The first round-up comes in 
May or June, and its purpose is to gather together 
all the cattle and the little ones that may have been 
born during the winter. As each baby stays close to 
its mother, the brand makes it easy to separate the 
animals and to give each to its rightful owner. 

The second round-up, which is in the fall, is to 
gather the steers together and send them out to the 
big cities. The ranch owners hire men to round up 
the cattle and drive them to the big markets. These 
cowboys are bold and vigorous. They can ride in the 
saddle all through the day and half into the night. 




256 LIFE OF TO-DAY 

They can ford a river on horseback, driving the cattle 

before them. These westerners are wonderfully 

skilled in the use of the lariat or lasso, a long rope, 

often made of braided leather, with a noose on the 

end. 

Sometimes one of the herd attempts to run away. 

Often he gets a good start before he is missed, but 

when he is, the cowboy is after him with a shout and 

gallop of hoofs. The steer ducks his head, snorts, 

and kicks up the dust with his prancing heels. The 

cowboy gains steadily, and presently is near enough 

to take accurate aim. Rising in the saddle, the reins 

in his left hand, with his right he whirls the lasso above 

his head and then, whiz! it goes cutting through the 

air, circling the charger's head, and, snap! is drawn 

tight around his neck. The animal stops short, rears, 

and protests, but presently is led back to the herd. 

It is a strenuous life, this of the ranch, and picturesque, 

but the ranches are fast being fenced in, and the cattle 

train is taking the place of the cowboy and his pony. 

" Truly it is a wonderful life that Is to be found 

throughout the United States. And best of all, these 

people, — East and West, North and 

IS ory in South, in cities and on the farms, at work 
the making 

in mine or in the factory, in the forest 

or on the ranch, newly-come immigrants or native- 
born for generations — all are Americans, proud of 
the history of America. And history is not a thing 
of the past only. We of to-day are making the 



HISTORY IN THE MAKING 257 

history of the future, and there are many signs that 
we are to go on to even better things. Men are 
thinking more and more of their fellow-men. The 
wealthy are giving of their wealth to the less fortu- 
nate, — founding hospitals, libraries, schools, and 
many other helpful institutions, making life more 
worth living than ever before. America! 

I love thine inland seas. 
Thy groves of giant trees, 

Thy rolling plains; 
Thy rivers' mighty sweep. 
Thy mystic canyons deep. 
Thy mountains wild and steep, 

All thy domains; 

Thy silver Eastern strands, 
Thy Golden Gate that stands 

Wide to the West ; 
Thy flowery Southland fair, 
Thy sweet and crystal air, — 
O land beyond compare, 

Thcc I love best ! * 



FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

We must not think that history is only something 
that happened long ago. The history that we study 
to-day is but the story of the life of the days gone by. 
And the life of to-day will have its place in the history 
that the children of the future w^ill study. 

* Henry Van Dyke: America. 



25S LIFE OF TO-DAY 

When we see that our nation attracts hundreds of 
thousands of immigrants to our shores every year, we 
reaHze that the people of ah countries recognize our 
power and millions leave their native lands to join 
hands with us. They wish to have a share in the 
making of our history, for history is made not only 
by the leaders, but by all honest, loyal citizens. 




The White City 



CHAPTER XIII 
RECALLING THE PAST 

The spring days of 1876 awoke each morning to 
fresh surprises in beautiful Fairmount Park, in Phila- 
delphia. All through the previous year centennial Ex- 
builders had plied their trade unceasingly, position, Phila- 
erecting quaint and beautiful buildings ^^^P^^^* ^^76 
over a level surface of two hundred acres. Foreign- 
looking men from many climes were unpacking odd- 
shaped cases marked with strange characters which 
carried no meaning to the American mind. There 
were Germans, Frenchmen, Italians, Japanese, Span- 
iards, and many others. 

These strangers had come to help us celebrate 
the one hundredth anniversary of the signing of tlie 
Declaration of Independence. Thirty-nine countries 
brought their choicest wares to show to the hundred- 
year-old nation. Many put up buildings of their 
own, like those of their homeland. Twenty-six uf 
our states had each its own building. In all there 
were about two hundred structures. Some were 
hastily built, intended only as temporary shelters; 
but others, such as Memorial Hall, which stands 
to-day, were well constructed and of unusual beauty. 

259 



26o RECALLING THE PAST 

Though not entirely completed, the exposition was 
formally opened in May. Wagner, the great German 
composer, wrote a march for the occasion. Whittier 
wrote a " Centennial Hymn," which was majestically 
sung by a thousand trained voices: 

'*Our fathers' God! from out whose hand 
The centuries fall like grains of sand, 
We meet to-day, united, free, 
And loyal to our land and Thee, 
To thank Thee for the era done, 
And trust Thee for the opening one. 



"Be with us while the New World greets 
The Old World thronging all its streets, 
Unveiling all the triumphs won 
By art or toil beneath the sun; 
And unto common good ordain 
This rivalship of hand and brain." 

On July 4, 1876, in the rear of Independence Hall, 
Richard Henry Lee, of Virginia, grandson of one of the 
signers of the Declaration of Independence, read that 
memorable paper to a great multitude. As he came 
forward holding tenderly the original document, now 
yellow and crumbling with age, the vast crowds rose 
and rent the air with their shouts. In the coldest of 
hearts the fire of patriotism was kindled. Nor were 
our people proud without cause. Despite its youth, 
the United States, in many of the exhibits, was in 
advance of the older nations. 



CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION 



261 



It was generally admitted that we led in making 
labor-saving machinery. There was a plow so elabo- 
rate that it cost a thousand dollars. There was a line 
of sewing machines of many different makes stretching 




5 a 9 a a U- 



Independence Hall, in Philadelphia 



for a half mile. There was a machine for hatching 
chickens that to the visiting farmer seemed hardly 
short of magic. There was, marvel of marvels, a great 
steam engine supplying the power that moved all the 
machinery of the exposition. Its mighty strength 
set thousands of wheels whirling. They, in turn, put 
in motion machines that produced before the very 
eyes of the gaping stranger all sorts of useful articles, 
such as pins, boots and shoes, bricks, envelopes, can- 
dies, tacks, nails, corks, carpets, dress-goods, and 
shingles. 

There too w^as the typewriter, an interesting 
machine, but at that time not considered of practical 
use. Much amusement was caused by the "lovers' 



262 



RECALLING THE PAST 




Eaily fonn of the telephone 



telegraph." It was like a modern boy's telephone, 
consisting of two boxes connected by a waxed string. 

The string carried the vibrations 
of the voice from one box to the 
other. Hardly more than a toy 
it was, but it hinted at the won- 
der to come. It was only a year 
later that Professor Alexander 
Graham Bell perfected the in- 
vention of the telephone. To- 
day its slender wires carry the 
voice between distant cities, and are stretched for 
thousands of miles in all directions throughout our land. 
Not in every respect, however, did we find ourselves 
first. In the picture galleries we had no such master- 
pieces as European countries exhibited. The school 
exhibits of other nations taught us that we had 
progressed but slowly. Most of our school buildings 
were unhealthful and the school grounds unattractive. 
Through the succeeding years the nation has taken 
these lessons to heart, and numerous changes for the 
better have been made. 

There were many things to be learned at the fair, 
and many people to learn them. It is believed that 
fully ten million people visited it. The railroads had 
lengthened their lines to accommooate the travelers; 
there were now 80,000 miles of railroad in the United 
States. To many of the visitors the trip seemed 
as hazardous as the far-famed voyage of Columbus. 



CENTENNIAL EXPOSITION 263 

They planned and they saved for the event. It made 
them half afraid, but with the kind of fear that sends 
one shivering on delightedly, step by step. To the 
children, and there were many whose small feet 
tramped the enchanted grounds, the promised visit 
meant seeing for the first time real Chinamen at work; 
dark-skinned people from Hawaii, who displayed 
beautiful pink coral and wondrous shells; oddly 
dressed folk from Egypt, showing embroideries of 
many colors; and, when nightfall came, above and 
about and everywhere, the gleam and tw^inkle of the 
countless lights. 

To older heads, too, many things were new and 
strange. Previous to the exposition Americans had 
traveled little, even in their own country. They 
knew comparatively nothing of the possibilities of the 
great land that was theirs. Such fruit as California 
exhibited, such grains as came from the Middle West, 
were a surprise to the people of the East. The 
visitors from abroad, looking upon the products of the 
United States, were eager to buy them. Since this 
our first exposition we have, year by year, sent out 
from our land an ever increasing amount of goods, — 
more, in fact, than we have received from abroad. 

Uncle Sam also took part in the Centennial Exposi- 
tion. Among his exhibits perhaps the most interesting 
was a postal car in which clerks were at their work. 
They showed how mail is received, sorted, and de- 
livered as the trains speed from station to station. 



264 



RECALLING THE PAST 



The printing business had an exhibit of special 
interest. The hand press at which Benjamin Frank- 
lin worked as a journeyman was there. Near it were 




Benjamin Franklin's printing press 



two large modern printing presses that were capable 
of making twenty thousand impressions a day. 

At the entrance to the fair grounds was seen an 
immense arm cast in bronze, clasping a huge torch. 
It was part of a colossal statue, "Liberty enlightening 
the World," sent to us as a birthday gift by France. 
In 1886 the entire statue was set up on an island in 
New York harbor. Its light invites the nations of 
the world, saying: ''Come to us. This is the land 
of the free and the home of the brave!" 

So successful was the Philadelphia exposition that 
many other important dates in our history have been 



COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 



265 



celebrated in like fashion. In 1892 Chicago opened 
wide her hospitable doors and invited Columbian 
every one to the shores of Lake Michi- Exposition, 
gan. "Come help us celebrate," we said Chicago, 1893 
to the nations, "the four hundredth anniversary of 
the discovery of a New World." 

Right cordially they responded. Spain sent models 
of Columbus's three famous vessels, the Santa Maria, 




The Liberty Statue, in New York harbor 



the Nina, and the Pinta. She also sent a gracious 
princess to honor the occasion. From Norway there 
came a strange-appearing craft, a Viking ship, to 



266 RECALLING THE PAST 

remind us, it was declared, that the Northmen were 
the true discoverers of North America. This boat 
was a model of one that had been unearthed with 
much difficulty. Its age could only be guessed at. 
It was seventy-six feet long, and the rudder was on 
one side. Upon its prow it bore a dragon's head, 
and upon its stern a dragon's tail. On a seat in the 
stern was the figure of a chief. The original of this 
boat is kept by the Norwegians in their national 
museum at Christiania. 

The Chicago exposition far exceeded that of 1876 
in size, covering more than one square mile. It was 
also attended by greater numbers. IXIore than twelve 
million people visited the Great White City, as it was 
called. Plans had been made to open the grounds 
in October, 1892, but there was delay in getting 
things ready. The exposition was dedicated on the 
22nd of that month, but the public was not admitted 
until the following year. The formal opening took 
place May i, 1893. President Cleveland, in his ad- 
dress, said, ''We stand to-day in the presence of the 
oldest nations of the world and point to the great 
achievements we here exhibit, asking no allowance 
on the score of youth." He extended a warm greet- 
ing "to those who have come from foreign lands to 
illustrate with us the growth and progress of human 
endeavor in the direction of a higher civilization." 

At the close of his address the President touched 
a key in the platform before him. It was connected 



COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 267 

with a 2000-horse-po\ver engine which started the 
machinery of the exposition. Almost instantly hun- 
dreds of flags were unfurled and many fountains 
began to play. The masses of the people surged back 
and forth and cheered vigorously. The year's wait 
had not been in vain. 

One might wander over the spacious ground for 
days and always meet new wonders. What are the 
things to be seen? There are red men and women from 
the Indian reservations. Among the Alaskans are Split 
Oak and Dull Hatchet and Clumsy Moccasin, dressed 
in all the glory of Indian finery. They wear neck- 
laces of bear's teeth, and belts from which dangle 
ghastly scalps. Over their shoulders and from their 
waists hang costly fur skins, which they drag through 
the dust of the exhibition grounds. The Eskimos, 
with their quaint squatty figures, also wear valuable 
furs. The furs remind us of Alaska's wealth. Evi- 
dently, we did not over-pay Russia when, in 1867, we 
purchased that territory for $7,200,000. 

That curious rocky structure sixty feet high about 
which so many people stand is a model of the old 
clifT dwellers' homes. It has been copied from the 
remains on Battle Rock Mountain, Colorado. In 
its crevices and half-hidden passages whole families 
dwell. There is also a museum of articles used by 
the inhabitants of centuries ago, — these articles 
have been unearthed by the hard work of patient 
scientists. 



268 



RECALLING THE PAST 



The past and present are portrayed together in 
many exhibits. There is the queer De Witt CHnton 
locomotive, the first on the New York Central Rail- 
road, and, near it, the road's newest passenger engine 
that makes a hundred miles an hour. There, too, is 
a beautiful model of the pilot house of a great ocean 
liner and some of its staterooms de luxe. How differ- 
ent from the accommodations of Fulton's Clermont! 
Out there on the blue waters of Lake Michigan is a 
model of a modern war vessel, the Illinois, whose 
obliging officers show how the guns are worked and 
describe the other details of the machinery of a 
modern sea-fighter. 

So rapid has progress been that the telephone 
which was regarded with amusement at the Philadel- 
phia Centennial, now has a building of its own. Here 

one may tafk with 
friends at a distance, 
even as far off as 
New York or Boston. 
The telephone girls 
who operate the sta- 
tion sit in full view 
of the sightseer. 

Most of the states 
erected characteristic 
buildings. For in- 
stance, California's was fashioned after an ancient 
adobe mission house. In the belfry hung old Spanish 










The California Building at the Chicago 
exposition 



COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION 269 

bells, recalling the days when California belonged to 
Spain. That state also had a wonderful display of 
fruit in the form of a globe of golden oranges. As 
fast as they decayed they were replaced by fresh ones 
sent directly from the groves. 

In Pennsylvania's building hung the old Liberty 
Bell, with its famous inscription. There were other 
treasures such as Jefferson's sword, and the chair in 
which he sat when he wrote the Declaration of Inde- 
pendence, the table on which it was signed, and a sofa 
that had once belonged to Washington. At the close 
of the exposition, Philadelphia took home her treas- 
ures, but she presented the building to Chicago. 

Rhode Island, in her building, exhibited a picture 
whose wooden frame had been part of the house of 
Joseph Williams, Roger Williams's youngest son. Vir- 
ginia reproduced Mount Vernon, the home of Washing- 
ton. In it were shown many mementos of the Father 
of his Country. Michigan built a logging camp of pine, 
where a company of lumbermen lived, just as they 
do in the forest. Thus each state -placed before the 
people of all the nations some picture that showed the 
part it had played in the country's story. 

The World's Columbian Exposition was marked by 
the beauty of the statues that were placed about the 
grounds* In front of the Administration Building 
was a striking figure of Columbus. Near the Elec- 
tricity Building was a statue of Franklin, a kite in 
his right hand, his left hand extended as if he had 



270 RECALLING THE PAST 

snatched from the clouds the great mysterious force 
that was running the machinery of the fair grounds. 

But of all the pictures that the Great White City 
stamped on the minds of its visitors none told more 
vividly of the progress of civilization than the series of 
floats presented on each of the first three nights of the 
opening week. The first float represented the Stone 
Age, showing the Cliff Dwellers; then the Bronze Age, 
with the Aztecs and Mound Builders; following them 
came a group portraying other American Indians; 
then the Departure of Columbus from Palos, the 
Discovery of America, Columbus presenting Indians 
to Ferdinand and Isabella. Next came an English 
Cavalier, then the Settlement at Jamestown. This 
was followed by Hudson, the Landing of the Pilgrims, 
De Soto and the Discovery of the Mississippi, and 
the Signing of the Declaration of Independence. 
There were floats to represent such great forces as 
Electricity, and others that pictured War, Peace, and 
Agriculture. Thus did history pass in review before 
the visitors. 

In 1901 Buffalo held an exposition that was dis- 
tinctly American; that is, no European or Asiatic 
Pan-American nation was invited. Only the people of 
Exposition, North America and South America were 
Buffalo, 1 90 1 represented. When the suggestion was 
first made, at a banquet, it was immediately 
accepted, and nearly a million dollars was subscribed 
by private citizens. 



PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 



271 



The exposition grounds were a mile long and a half 
mile wide. The buildings were unusually beautiful 
in line and coloring. Here was no "White City," but 
a "warmth and wealth of colors," making it the 
"Landscape City." 

Richard Watson Gilder wrote : ' ' Here by the great 
waters of the north, are brought together the peoples 
of two Americas, in exposition of their resources, 
industries, products, inventions, arts, and ideas." 




The Court of Fountains, at the Buffalo exposition 



This Buffalo fair, known as the Pan-American, 
showed the great strides that had been made in the 
use of electricity in the eight years following the 



272 RECALLING THE PAST 

Columbian Exposition. Several electrical companies 
had each a building of its own, in which it exhibited 
wonderful machinery for the use of this power. 

It was at night that one appreciated best the 
exquisite beauty of the fair grounds. When twilight 
came the buildings were almost deserted. Everybody 
went to the Court of Fountains to watch the illumina- 
tion. First the lamp-posts took on a delicate glow, 
until they resembled tiny pink buds. Then the eaves 
and the archways and the domes of the buildings were 
faintly outlined against the evening sky. Soon the 
lines began to sparkle, and then — a wondrous, 
dazzling burst of light! 

Most of the power that made this fairyland was 
furnished by the mighty waters of Niagara. They 
set in motion immense turbines, connected with 
dynamos. These produced the electric current that 
was carried through wires to Buffalo, miles away. By 
telephone one might listen to the roar of the waters, as 
it sounded in the Cave of the Winds, under the falls. 

As in former exhibitions, the natives of i\merica 
were an interesting feature. There were structures to 
represent the old homes of the mound builders and 
some remains of the Aztecs and Peruvians. There 
was a Six Nation village, where the descendants of 
the great Iroquois showed their white brothers how 
the Indian lives to-day. Twenty-five tribes from 
west of the Mississippi were represented, headed by 
such famous chiefs as American Horse. There, too, 



PAN-AMERICAN EXPOSITION 273 

was a Filipino village, such a village as Dewey's men 



saw in I J 

The Pan-American has been called an out-of-doors 
exposition, partly because of the exterior beauty of 
the buildings, and partly because of the many open- 
air attractions. The small boy visitor watched with 
great enthusiasm college games, baseball, football, 
basketball. There were tournaments and all sorts of 
American sports. 

Crowds flocked to Buffalo. The exhibition grounds 
were well policed, but despite all vigilance a madman 
made this his opportunity to plunge the nation into 
mourning. It was here that President McKinley, 
while holding a reception in the Temple of Music, 
was shot. It was thought, at first, that the President 
would recover, but when on September 14, 1901, he 
died, a deep shadow swept over the exposition, as 
over the whole country. 

Three years after the Buffalo fair, the acquisition 
of the Louisiana Territory was celebrated at St. Louis. 
With pride its citizens pointed out that Louisiana Pur- 
one of their city blocks represented more chase Exposi- 
money than we had paid France for the ^^°^' ^*' ^^^^s, 
entire Louisiana Territory. The popula- 
tion of that area now numbered over fifteen million. 
Here was the most important wheat and corn pro- 
ducing region in the world. 

The exhibition was opened by a gorgeous procession 
headed by Cardinal Gibbons. Clad in the red robes 



274 RECALLING THE PAST 

of his church, he held out his hands in invocation 
and prayed: "May this vast territory which was 
peacefully acquired a hundred years ago, be for all 
time to come the tranquil abode of millions of en- 
lightened. God-fearing, and industrious people, en- 
gaged in the various pursuits and avocations of life." 
The honor of opening the exposition was given to 
President Roosevelt, who said, ''The old pioneer 
days are gone with their roughness and their hard- 
ships, their incredible toil and their wild, half-savage 
romance. But the need of the pioneer virtues re- 
mains the same as ever." 

The directors of the Louisiana Purchase Exposition 
had decided early in the making of their plans, that 
the exhibit should be educational. It was to show 
the people how the great industries of their country 
were carried on; how finished products which they 
bought at the counter were made. There one might 
see the preserving of tomatoes from the time they 
were picked from the vines until they were sealed 
away in air-tight cans. Through a glass window 
one might watch a series of wonderful machines. A 
log would be shoved in at one end and out of the 
other would come — newspapers ! Children could see 
the stitching and the binding of such books as they 
used in school — geographies, histories, arithmetics. 

The Educational Building showed the efforts made 
to help the negro and the Indian.^ The deaf and 
dumb, the blind, the feeble-minded are all, it was 



LOUISIANA PURCHASE EXPOSITION 



275 



shown, provided for by the more fortunate. There, 
too, was an X-ray apparatus, that wonderful inven- 
tion given to humanity by a German scientist. It 




Photograph taken with X-rays 



seems to give to the eyes of the surgeon the power of a 
magician, showing him just where to operate for the 
reUef of his patients. 

Curious crowds were interested in the workings of 
the theatrical stage from behind the scenes. They 
could learn how flashes of lightning and peals of 
thunder are made, as well as many other secrets of 
the stage manager. 

Man's conquest of nature was portrayed. There 
was a model showing the working of the Pike's Peak 
railway and another of the Suez Canal. There was a 
miniature of the steel arch bridge at Niagara. On a 



276 RECALLING THE PAST 

small scale, the irrigating systems as used in the 
American desert were shown. One might see, too, 
the underground workings of a gold mine, the tunnels 
and the slopes and the shafts. 

Even nature had been forced to reproduce some 
of her marvels. Under the United States Bureau 
of Plant Industry six acres near the Agricultural 
Building had been laid out to represent the United 
States. The scale was one-half inch to the mile, and 
the border lines of the different states were marked 
off by cinder paths. The products of the central 
region had been planted in the regular season. Those 
of the warmer climates had been forced under glass. 
Mississippi, Louisiana, Florida, and Georgia, for 
example, showed how their cotton, sugar cane, and 
fruits grow. Minnesota had one fifth of an acre, 
where wheat, rye, barley, and corn flourished. An- 
other part of the exhibit showed how to cure the 
diseases that attack garden plants. Still another 
showed that the sand dunes can be made to grow 
vines and other green things. 

Nor were all the wonders confined to the ground. 
The kingdom of the air had many things to exhibit, — 
gliding machines, aeroplanes, and wireless telegraphy. 

This, indeed, was a marvelous exhibition. So 
thought the little girl, following a wizard who showed 
her how a doll is made to open and shut its eyes 
and to talk. So thought everybody, particularly 
when there descended suddenly upon them a sharp, 



OTHER EXPOSITIONS 277 

short snowstorm ! This, produced in midsummer, was 

another illustration of the wonders of science. 

These have not been the only expositions by which 

the Americans have reviewed the past and gained 

some hint of the future. The southern 

states have, twice at Atlanta and aeain 

^ expositions 

at New Orleans and at Charleston, cele- 
brated their prosperity by Cotton Expositions. In 
1897 Tennessee had a ''Centennial and National Ex- 
position;" in 1898 Omaha, the "Trans- Mississippi 
and International Exposition;" and in 1895 Portland, 
Oregon, the "Northwestern Industrial Exposition." 
In 1907 the three-hundredth anniversary of the 
founding of Jamestown was celebrated by an exposi- 
tion held at Norfolk, Virginia. The Alaska- Yukon 
Exposition, held on the grounds of the University of 
Washington in 1909, declared its object to be "to 
exploit the resources of Alaska and the Yukon terri- 
tory, to make known the vast importance of the trade 
with the Pacific Ocean and to demonstrate the mar- 
velous progress of Western America." 

In 19 1 5 an exposition was held at San Francisco to 
celebrate the opening of the Panama Canal. Edwin 
Markham, the poet, wrote in terms of glowing praise : 
" I have to-night seen the greatest revelation of beauty 
that was ever seen on earth. I say this, meaning it 
literally and with full regard for all that is known of 
ancient art and architecture, and all that the modern 
world has heretofore seen of glory and grandeur. I 



278 ^ RECALLING THE PAST 

have seen beauty that will give the world new standards 
of art and a joy in loveliness never before reached. 
This is what I have seen — the courts and buildings of 
the Panama-Pacific Exposition illuminated at night." 

These celebrations varied in purpose, and in dis- 
plays, and yet what did they all show? Not the 
glories of war, but the triumphs of peace. It is true 
that guns and swords were displayed, but a com- 
paratively small place was given to military exhibits. 
Does not this show that, after all, the American 
people are devoted to the arts of peace? In times of 
great need we have felt obliged to resort to arms to 
settle our differences. Let us hope that, throughout 
the future — as in many cases in the past — we may 
adjust all our disagreements by the dignified method 
of arbitration. 

Let us hope, too, that our beloved nation may con- 
tinue to stand before the world's powers as a united 
people ready to help the weak of all lands. The gun 
and the sword may have their place, but the nobler 
duty to one*s country is in faithful labor in the field, 
the shop, the office, — and in public service. 

"Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great! 
Humanity with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate!"* 

* Longfellow: The Building of the Ship. 




A school garden in war time 



CHAPTER XIV 
THE WORLD WAR 

The Secretary of War stood blindfolded. A tense 
silence filled the room. The camera men and the 
moving-picture men, alert and eager, the 
newspaper writers, and the military offi- 
cers, waited. Quietly and with delibera- 
tion, the Secretary stretched out his hand and put it 
into a deep, wide-mouthed glass bowl in which were 
thousands of small capsules, each containing a paper 
bearing a number. The Secretary drew forth one of 
these and the number was read. 

This simple act marked a new step in our country's 
history. It was our new way, the American w^ay, of call- 
ing our young men to service in defense of the nation. 
In 1775 Paul Revere rode ''to every Middlesex village 
and farm," with his cry "To arms !" In 1861 President 
Lincoln called for volunteers. But in 191 7, when the 
United States entered the great World War, the people 
decided that calling for volunteers alone was not the best 
way to raise the armies of democracy. Nor did they be- 
lieve in a compulsory military service that makes every 
man in the nation a soldier. As President W^ilson said, 
"The nation needs all men; but it needs each man, 

279 



28o THE WORLD WAR 

not In the field that will most please him, but in the 

endeavor that will best serve the common good." 

Therefore our men were chosen for service in the World 

War by selective conscription, that is, the government 

determined which of them should carry arms and 

which should work for the war at home. 

The law which expressed this new idea was not 

enacted without debate. Its friends fought valiantly 

for it and the arguments in its favor were 
Reasons for . . o • i r^ < < a 

the draft convmcmg. Said one Congressman, A 

man is told exactly what his 'bit' is. If 
he is not called upon for service, he can continue his 
vocation with the assurance that if the Government 
wants him, it will call him, and that so long as it does 
not call him he is doing the proper thing to stay where 
he is." "Not all the red-blooded young men are 
needed in the army," another Congressman pointed 
out; "millions are needed on the farms. A doctor 
is of more value just behind the firing line than in the 
line. In the firing line he would have but one life to 
give his country. Behind the lines he might save 
hundreds of lives for his country." " It is democratic," 
said another; "the man who has driven the racing 
automobile will find himself next in line to the chauffeur 
of a wheelbarrow. Each will learn that the other is, 
after all, a good sort of chap." 

It was in May, 191 7, that the law was enacted. 
June 5 was fixed as registration day and the news- 
paper headings that morning read "America Enrolls 



OUTBREAK OF THE WAR 



281 



To-day for the Fight." Said one of the newspapers, 
**In self-defense, to save America, to preserve our 
national self-respect, ten million Americans will register 
their names to-day, prepared to respond 
hereafter to any call for service the 
nation may make. They have already 
volunteered. The whole nation has 
volunteered." 

After registration the men were di- 
vided into classes so that the first to 
go should be those who were the least 
needed at home. In addition, it was 
necessary to decide the order in which 
the men of each class were to go into 
military service. This was the purpose 
of drawing the numbers by lot. That 
determined which were first to join the 
great hosts of youths so soon to go 
across the sea to take part in the struggle to "make 
the world safe for Democracy." 

It was in the summer of 19 14 that the world awoke 
one morning to read that the crown prince of Austria 
and his wife had been murdered by a outbreak of 
Bosnian. Like many other people of the World 
southern Austria, the assassin was of the ^ 
Serb race, many of whom wanted to have their home 
land taken away from Austria and annexed to Serbia. 
About a month later Austria sent a note to Serbia 
blaming her for the murder and making several unfair 




American soldier 

wearing gas mask 



282 THE WORLD WAR 

demands on her by way of payment. Serbia was will- 
ing to sacrifice a great deal in order to keep peace with 
Austria. She met most of the demands, and offered 
to let the others — the most unreasonable of all — be 
settled by arbitration ; but this Austria refused. On 
July 28, 1914, Austria declared war on Serbia, a nation 
less than a twelfth her own size. In so doing, she had 
the advice and support of her ally, Germany. 

For more than thirty years Germany, under the rule 
of Prussia, the largest German state, had been get- 
ting ready to make war. Some people in other lands 
realized it, but many hoped that the day of wars was 
past. They felt that everybody was so busy trying 
to make the world a better place in which to live, 
that there seemed no time to spare for waging war or 
for preparing for it. 

Now we see that the Prussian rulers of Germany 
had been getting their country and their people ready 
for war. They had taught the people to believe that 
military strength was a nation's highest ambition — 
by it one could rule the world. Germany's empire 
was crowded ; she wanted more territory. She was 
jealous, too, of England's great commercial power. 
Her rulers planned to spring on the world, surprised 
and unprepared, and thus fulfill all their ambitions. 

Russia, a great nation much like the Serbs in race 
and in religion, made ready to come to the aid of little 
Serbia. Germany demanded that Russia stop mobiliz- 
ing her troops, even though Austria was rapidly call- 



GERMANY'S PLAN OF ATTACK 283 

ing her men to arms. Russia was not to be frightened 
into deserting a kindred nation, and she went ahead 
gathering her army together. With this as an excuse, 
Germany declared w^ar on Russia. France, faithful 
to her promise to Russia to help in time of war, called 
her men to the front. Then Germany declared war 
on France. 

The opportunity Germany had been looking for 
seemed to be at hand. She would make a sudden rush 
on France, crush her, turn on Russia, and Germany's 
place both nations under her heel. Then plan of 
after a rest, she would reorganize, force ^^^^^^ 
her conquered peoples to battle for her and provoke 
another war, this time with England and the new- world 
nations. 

The boundary line between Germany and France was 
less than a hundred miles long. Both nations had 
this strip well fortified. France, however, left her 
Belgian frontier unprotected because a special treaty 
had been signed by the Great Powers of Europe, — 
Austria, France, Great Britain, Prussia, Russia, — 
and by Belgium herself, providing that in time of war 
Belgium was to remain a neutral country ; that is, 
Belgium was not to take sides or help either side or 
permit any nation to use her territory for military opera- 
tions. France, trusting in the sacredness of treaties, 
felt safe on her Belgian borderland. It was, therefore, 
through Belgium that Germany sought to enter France. 
She was willing to sell her honor for military ad van- 



284 THE WORLD WAR 

tage. She was ready to break her word and to com- 
mit a horrible crime upon an innocent nation. 

Germany first demanded of Belgium permission 
to march through her lands to France. Belgium 
refused, for she could not break her promise to the 
other nations. She said to Germany, ''The Belgian 
government would, by accepting the propositions . . . 
sacrifice the honor of the nation while at the same 
time betraying her duties toward Europe." Then 
Germany broke her promise to Belgium and the 
other countries and invaded the little land. Even 
had there been no treaty making Belgium neutral 
territory, ordinary justice should have saved her from 
this assault. 

The man who was "every inch a king," Albert of 
Belgium, gathered together his small army and tried 
to stop the invaders. They were pitifully 
ofBelgium^^ outnumbered by the hosts of gray -clad, 
tramping men who swarmed over almost 
all of the country, bringing with them such misery, 
horror, and crime as seems almost unbelievable in 
these days. In some places homes were burned, crops 
were destroyed, men were murdered, women were 
taken away in chains, and even little children were 
cruelly mutilated. Such sacrifices could not be in vain. 
Belgium, with her bleeding hands, held off the enemy 
for days, and by delaying his ad\^ance, helped to 
save the civilization of the world from being wrecked 
by the Germans. 



BELGIUM AND OTHER COUNTRIES 



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Belgians fleeing from the German invaders 



When Germany declared that as a matter of "life 
and death" she was "compelled" to Invade Belgium, 
England's ambassador in Berlin said, "It other 
was, so to speak, a matter of 'life and countries 
death' for the honor of Great Britain that ^^ ^he war 
she should keep her solemn agreement to do her utmost 
to defend Belgium's neutrality, if attacked." And 
she did. Though unprepared for war, England, on 
August 4, 1914, took up arms against Germany. Japan, 



286 THE WORLD WAR 

in accordance with an agreement with England, came 
to her side. Germany and Austria had counted on 
Italy as an ally, but Italy's agreement was to stand 
by those countries only if they were attacked. Italy 
declared that the Central Powers had not been attacked 
but were waging a war of offense. Hence she refused 
to join them, and later declared war against them. 
Other countries also entered the war on the side of the 
Allies : Montenegro, Roumania, San Marino, Portugal, 
United States, Cuba, Panama, Greece, Siam, Liberia, 
China, Brazil, Guatemala, Nicaragua, Costa Rica, 
Honduras, Peru, Haiti. 

Many reasons led all these nations to array 
themselves against the Central Powers, — Germany, 
Austria, Bulgaria, and Turkey. Treaties had been 
broken. Germany's own prime minister at the out- 
break of the war referred to a treaty as a mere "scrap 
of paper." This is not the way nations grow in under- 
standing and respect for one another. The more 
powerful the nation, the more it should feel bound to 
respect its treaties. Germany disregarded the rights 
of small nations. By her cowardly and unlawful use 
of her submarines, she made the high seas unsafe for 
neutral vessels. She scattered her spies far and wide. 
Into all the civilized countries they made their way, 
winning the confidence of the people and then betray- 
ing them. 

Germany's ideal of government differed very greatly 
from that of the Allies, and most particularly from our 



REASONS FOR WAR 



287 



own. We believe, in the words of our beloved Lincoln, 
in a "government of the people, for the people, by the 
people." Germany believed that the people were to do 
the will of their rulers, and these rulers had filled their 
people with false ideals, such as hate and fear of other 
nations. For the sake of these deceived people, for 
the sake of small nations, for our own safety, for the 
good of mankind, the military power of Germany had 
to be broken. 




The submarines sank many unarmed ships 

Because in 191 4 Germany sprang like a wild beast 
upon her prey, France staggered and almost fell under 
the first terrific onslaughts. The German 
army nearly made good the boast to "be inpi-^nce 
in Paris in six weeks." At the battle of 
the Marne, in September, 1914, the heroic French, 
helped by as many soldiers as England could get to the 



288 THE WORLD WAR 

front, held off the foe and saved their loved capital. 
The enemy's next great offensive was at Ypres, in Bel- 
gium. The Germans hoped thus to reach and control 
the English Channel. This would have greatly en- 
dangered England. Once more they were held. 

Then in 191 6 the Germans struck to the south at 
Verdun, expecting to reach Paris this way. Once 
more they were resisted and held in check. In May 
of that year the German fleet ventured forth from its 
hiding in the Baltic Sea, but in the Battle of Jutland 
was so repulsed as to compel it to withdraw once more 
to the refuge of the inland waters. 

In the beginning of the war Russia threw herself 
heart and soul into the struggle and fought many 

battles for the Allies. In March, 1917, a 
The Russian ^ , ^. ^11 t^i. 

revolution great revolution took place, ihe auto- 
cratic government was overthrown and a 
democracy was established. ''Good," said the demo- 
cratic nations of the world, "we are glad to welcome 
you into our family." But alas! Russia's ideas of 
democracy were not true ones. Instead of every one 
turning to and working for the good of all, each group 
tried to gain control of the government, and so it 
passed from hand to hand. Here was Germany's 
chance. She took advantage of this pitiable internal 
weakness. Through her spies and her bribes she suc- 
ceeded in making so-called peace with Russia, a peace 
that placed Russia back under the heel of autocracy — 
this time the greatest autocracy in the world. 



UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 289 

By her conquest of Russia Germany greatly in- 
creased her territory in Europe, but she at the same 
time sank lower in the eyes of the world. Losses of 
Though she controlled much of Russia, the Central 
Germany had lost all her colonies. Her °^^^^ 
ally, Turkey, likewise met wi-th heavy reverses. She 
was badly beaten in Asia. Among her losses, in 191 7, 
was the Holy City, Jerusalem. 

For almost three years the United States used every 
possible and honorable means to keep out of the 

struggle. ''It is plain enough," said 

r> • 1 . -iTT-i . , ^ iiu United States 

rresident Wilson m IQ17, how we were . ,, 

^ ' ' ^ in the war 

forced into the war. The extraordinary 
insults and aggressions of the imperial German govern- 
ment left us no self-respecting choice but to take up 
arms in defense of our rights as a free people and of 
our honor as a sovereign government. The military 
masters of Germany deny us the right to be neutral. 
They filled our unsuspecting communities with vicious 
spies and conspirators. They sought b}^ violence to 
destroy our industries and arrest our commerce. 
They tried to incite Mexico to take up arms against 
us and to draw Japan into a hostile alliance with her 
. . . they impudently denied us the use of the high 
seas and repeatedly executed their threat that ihey 
would send to their death any of our people who ven- 
tured to approach the coasts of Europe." 

Indeed the sinking, without warning, of the Lusi- 
taniay in 191 5, when more than a thousand people (in- 



290 THE WORLD WAR 

eluding 114 Americans) were lost, and of the Sussex, 
in 1 91 6, when others were lost, showed quite plainly 
that Germany would not respect the laws of civilized 
people. Finally she went so far as to declare that she 
would deliberately sink all neutral ships found within a 
zone prescribed by her, except that one American 
ship a week might go to England if it followed 
certain rules which Germany laid down. Such an in- 
sult, followed by the actual sinking of American ships, 
compelled Congress, April 6, 191 7, to declare that a 
state of war existed with Germany. Later in the year 
war was declared also against Austria-Hungary, which 
was " simply the vassal of the German government." 

''For us there is but one choice. We have made it. 
Woe be to the man or group of men that seeks to stand 
in our way in this day of high resolution when every 
principle we hold dearest is to be vindicated and made 
secure for the salvation of the nations. We are ready 
to plead at the bar of history, and our flag shall wear 
a new luster. Once more we shall make good with 
our lives and fortunes the great faith to which we were 
born, and a new glory shall shine in the face of our 
people." 

Every true American helped to make good these words 
of his President. Across the blue waters of the Atlantic, 
two millions of our soldiers, defying the submarines, 
were successfully convoyed to hasten the dawn of peace. 
At home, the windows of rich and poor displayed 
with pride the little red and white service flag with its 



THE HOME LINE 



291 



brave blue star — one, two, or more. Behind the 
first line of khaki-clad boys in France stood the 
second line of defense, — the home line. Here it was 
that every man, 
woman, and child 
played his part. 
Without this line 
the soldier would 
have been helpless, 
but because he 
knew he could 
count on it, he went 
dashing forward 
with a thrilling 
heroism and daring. 
It was not enough 
that Congress 
should provide for 
raising armies. It 
had to turn its at- 
tention, too, to the 
all-important mat- 
ter of money. Wars 

are an immense drain on the wealth of a country. 
Huge sums must be spent, and raised. 
The first time the government asked its ^j^^ ^^ 
people to loan their money, in the First 
Liberty Loan, over four million patriots answered the 
call and offered far more than had been asked. The 




A Liberty Loan poster 



2g2 



THE WORLD WAR 



second time it called for three billion dollars and over 
four and a half were raised. Within two years the 
people put five big loans " over the top." 

A government 
bond is the safest 
and best kind of 
investment. When 
you buy one you 
know that the whole 
country is back of 
the government's 
promise to pay you 
interest and to re- 
turn your money 
when it is due. In 
order that the great 
privilege of helping 
the government 
might be shared by 
rich and poor, old 
and young, stamps, 
which are some- 
thing like bonds, 
were sold — twenty-five-cent Thrift Stamps and five- 
dollar War Savings Stamps. These are for everybody. 
Even the little kindergarten boy would come to his 
teacher with his quarter grasped tightly in his little 
fist for his Thrift Stamp. He was learning early two 
valuable lessons, patriotism and the power to save. 




A Liberty Loan poster 



THE FOOD PROBLEM 



293 



Some organizations, like the Young Men's Christian 
Association, the Young Men's Hebrew Association, 
the Knights of Columbus, asked for money to be 
spent for the good of ''the boys." Again the checks, 
the bills, and the coins came pouring in. These 
associations went with the soldiers overseas. In the 
strange cities they set up their tents or huts ; and 
in the camps, on the boats, everywhere, they went. 
They furnished entertainment for the inactive evenings ; 
they supplied paper, pen, and ink, and reminded the 
boys, "Don't forget to write home." 

Another section of the second line of defense was de- 
voted to the big problem of feeding our army, our 
allies, and ourselves. Again we thought of 
ourselves last. Mr. Hoover, the Food Ad- pj-o^jiem 
ministrator, told us from time to time just 
what we should have to save. At one time he would 
say "meat," then again "wheat," and then "sugar." 
The response of the people was quick and generous. 

"War gardens" took the place of the green lawn 
spaces. We were up early weeding our plots and tend- 
ing our crops. College girls and high-school boys, even 
the littlest children, helped Uncle Sam to feed his family 
and friends. Boy Scouts and Camp Fire Girls worked 
w^ith a new zest because all was for "our country." 
Mothers studied industriously how they might save 
and yet serve wholesome and attractive food. 

Never before in the history of the world have its 
women done so many things, particularly those things 



294 



THE WORLD WAR 



that It was thought only men could do. They were out 
in the fields harvesting grain. They were in the fac- 
tories making munitions. They were working on our 
street cars ; they drove our ambulances ; they ran our 
elevators ; they worked as yeomen in the navy. Above 
all, the women labored tor the Red Cross. 

The Red Cross organization, generously supported 
by the people, grew and expanded greatly during 
the war. Like an angel of mercy it 
Cross spreads its wings over the earth. It 

reaches out with healing and help from 
the home lands to the stricken battle areas where 
nurses labor ceaselessly, where young ambulance 
drivers work night and day, where gaunt and tired 
surgeons never stop their saving labors. To the Red 
Cross the uniformed man, at camp, at home, or in the 
front lines, tells his troubles and is helped. 




Dogs were used in carrying aid to wounded men 

There is no part in the great conflict of which we 
may be more proud than our great ship- 
ping achievements. We sent an army 
across the Atlantic, with munitions, equipment, and 



Shipping 



SHIPPING 



29S 




PROVIDE THE SINEWS OF WAR 
BUY LIBERTY BONDS 



A Liberty Loan poster 

food. We built hundreds of ships and, protected 
by our own and England's navy, we defied Germany 
and her ruthless submarine warfare. 

The World War developed many new phases of 
warfare. Perhaps the most outrageous was the use 
to which Germany put the submarine. An American 
invention, Germany perfected it and then used it, not 
only in lawful warfare against war ships, but in the 
ruthless sinking of unarmed merchantmen. 



296 THE WORLD WAR 

Trench warfare became a regular part of the fight- 
ing. To shelter the men from the direct fire of 

the enemy, long ditches were dug in the 
trenches ground. These trenches were infested by 

rats and vermin. Water crept in and the 

pouring rains added to the misery. No wonder "the 

boys " awaited eagerly the coming of the Salvation Army 

lassie with her steaming cup of coffee, or, in sadder 

times, the Red Cross worker to care for the wounded. 

Many airplanes, too, were for the first time used in 

warfare. Overhead, circle, swoop, dive, and dip the 

great birds of the blue, scout planes, bombing planes, 

battle planes, each with its special work to 
Airplanes , ^ , 

do. Some carry but one man, some as many 

as twelve. They do many kinds of work. They drop 

bombs upon enemy positions, they signal their own 

artillery where to fire, they spy out the enemy's land 

and plans, they take photographs, and they have great 

battles aloft whenever an enemy plane attempts to 

cross the lines. 

As far away as is earth from sky, even so far away 

in beauty are the great tanks, from their winged 

brothers. But their service is none the 
Tanks 

less an important one. The tank is a 

huge motor-car, heavily armored, moving by cater- 
pillar-drive, with its endless revolving belt which 
carries it crashing through fences and walls and over 
holes and ditches. It shoots as it travels, and cuts 
through barbed wire and all sorts of heavy defenses. 






WINNING THE WAR 



297 



Poison gas 



Among the many ways in which Germany violated 
the rules of warfare was her use of poison gas as a 
weapon. It is one of the things that were 
strictly forbidden by treaties to which all 
the warring powers had agreed ; but when Germany in- 
troduced it the Allies were compelled to use it in return. 
Before an attack great clouds of death-dealing vapor 
were spread over the lines. The gas caused much 
torturing pain and many deaths. Masks were soon 
made for protection and saved many lives. 

About a year after the United States entered the war 
the allied forces were placed under the su- 
preme command of General Foch. Under thewar^ 
him the armies of the nations fought shoul- 
der to shoulder. Americans under the command of 




#5^« ®t- 







The tank shoots as it travels 



298 



THE WORLD WAR 



Help him win by 
Saving and Serving 




General Pershing took their full part. In March, 
191 8, the Germans made their most extensive attack 
along the Western Front. At first it seemed as if 

they might over- 
whelm the soldiers 
of freedom, but 
once more they 
were held. Then 
followed counter- 
blows by Foch, the 
Americans taking 
their first im- 
portant part at 
Chateau-Thierry 
and later forcing 
the Germans from 
the stronghold of 
St. Mihiel. 

Then the gray 
hosts were pushed 
steadily, hourly, 
daily, back, back, 
back across the 
lands they had laid waste ; back to their own land 
where they must learn the first lesson of a true de- 
mocracy — no person may live in this world and 
think first of himself and his wishes ; each man must 
think of his neighbor and of the good of all as well as 
of himself. 



BUY 

WAR SAVINGS STAMPS 



General Pershing, as shown in a W.S.S. poster 



SACRIFICE AND HEROISM 299 

Bulgaria was the first of the Central Powers to 
crumple. In September, 1918, she begged for a truce 
and ended by laying down her arms. Turkey and 
Austria-Hungary followed soon afterward, and finally 
Germany herself gave up the fight at the eleventh hour 
on the eleventh day of the eleventh month, 191 8. 

In this war things unthought of, things undreamed 
of, suddenly appeared from the deep, dark re- 
cesses of evil. But shining brightly 

against this black background stand Sac- ^^^l ^®. 
° ^ ^ ^ and heroism 

rifice and Heroism — soldiers who carry 
their stricken ofificers off the battlefields, ofhcers who rush 
out to bring back wounded men, trench mates who, 
though parched with thirst, give their last drop of water 
with a smile and a "Take it, pal, I don't want it." 

There stands plucky little Serbia who fought to the 
utmost for her home ; and dauntless Belgium with her 
ravaged country and her crown of honor. Side by side 
are France and England, long enemies, now comrades. 
With England, the Mother Country, — the past wiped 
out, — and with her brothers of France and Italy, 
stands America, who has poured out her treasure — 
her youth, her gold, her love, fighting to keep her 
country the land of the free, and to bring that blessed 
freedom to others, fighting for the flag we love. 

O Flag, with the old, old glory, 

We thrill as you float above ; 
We read anew in your field of blue 

The message of brother-love. 



300 THE WORLD WAR 

With love in our hearts we bade you 

Fare forth on the periled sea 
To stricken lands and the valiant bands 

Defending their liberty. 

Your folds are the shrouds of heroes, 
Your staff is the strength of men, 

Your gleaming stars and your streaming bars 
Sing "Freedom shall reign again." 



FOR CAREFUL STUDY 

July, 1 91 4, was made eventful by the outbreak of a 
war which spread until it involved almost every nation 
in the world. For this reason it goes into history as 
the ''World War." 

The war was started by Germany. Austria-Hun- 
gary, it is true, was the first nation to declare war, but 
she was under the mastery of Germany. She made an 
unfair attack upon Serbia. Russia came to the aid of 
Serbia, and Germany used this as an excuse for declar- 
ing war upon Russia and upon Russia's ally, France. 
Germany, in order to strike at France, broke her pledge 
to Belgium and other nations, and invaded Belgium. 
Upon this England entered the war against Germany. 
Turkey and Bulgaria joined the Central Powers, and 
soon practically all the powerful nations were arrayed 
against them. 

The United States entered the war April 6, 191 7, 
because Germany had been inhumane in her warfare 
and had attacked American shipping and killed Ameri- 
can citizens. 



UNITED STATES IN THE WAR 301 

At first Germany seemed to be having some success 
in her wild ambition to conquer the world. Her armies 
overran Belgium, invaded France, and came within a 
few miles of Paris, but were held back. In the mean- 
while the British navy had practically cleared the seas 
of German shipping and blockaded German seaports. 
In desperation Germany began to make wholesale 
illegal use of her submarines. 

The United States, in spite of German submarines, 
successfully sent across the ocean two million soldiers 
who joined the Allies. 

With this increased strength against her, Germany, 
the last of the Central Powers to give up, signed an 
armistice November 11, 191 8. 

FACT TO BE MEMORIZED 

Our war with Germany, 1917-1918, was caused by cruel, 
unlawful, and aggressive acts of the German government. 



APPENDIX A 

FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 

Discovery and Exploration 

Columbus discovered America in 1492 and established 
Spanish claim to territory. 

Cabot discovered the mainland of North America in 1497 
and estabUshed English claim to territory. 

America was named for Americus Vespucius. 

Balboa discovered the Pacific Ocean in 1513. 

Magellan's men were the first to sail around the earth, 1519- 
1522. 

De Soto discovered the Mississippi River in 1541. 

Cartier's discovery of the St. Lawrence and La Salle's 
exploration of the Mississippi estabUshed French claim to 
territory. 

Hudson explored the Hudson River in 1609 and established 
Dutch claim to territory. 

Settlement 

Raleigh made two attempts to found a colony in Virginia, 
which, though unsuccessful, turned the thought of the EngUsh 
toward the New World. 

The first permanent English colony was founded at James- 
town, Virginia, in 1607. 

Negro slavery was introduced into Virginia in 1619. 

Massachusetts was settled by the Pilgrims at Plymouth, 
1620, and by other Puritans at Boston, 1630. 

Maryland was settled by Lord Baltimore and other Catholics. 

New Netherland was settled by the Dutch in 1623, at New 
Amsterdam and elsewhere; but it was taken by the English in 
1664. 

303 



304 APPENDIX 

Pennsylvania was settled by Quakers under William Penn, 
who founded Philadelphia, 1682. 

Colonial Wars 

Three colonial wars were waged between the French and the 
English because of wars in Europe. 

A fourth colonial war, the French and Indian, 1 754-1 763, 
began in a contest for the Ohio valley, and resulted in EngUsh 
supremacy in North America. 

The Revolutionary War 

The Revolutionary War, 1 775-1 783, was caused by England*s 
treatment of her colonies as to taxation and trade laws. 

The Declaration of Independence was adopted at Phila- 
delphia, July 4, 1776. 

The capture of Burgoyne's army, 1777, prevented the English 
from dividing the colonies in two along the Hudson, and secured 
French aid for the Americans. 

The surrender of Cornv/aUis to Washington, at Yorktown, 
1 781, practically ended the Revolutionary War. 

By the Treaty of Paris, 1783, at the close of the Revolutionary 
War, England recognized American independence, and the 
boundary Unes of the United States were agreed upon. 

Growth of the Union 

The many weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation, 
under which the Union had been governed, led to the adoption 
of the Constitution in 1788. 

George Washington was inaugurated first President of the 
United States in 1789. 

Our national capitals have been New York, Philadelphia, 
Washington. 

The Louisiana Territory was purchased from France in 1803, 
and afterwards explored by Lewis and Clark. 

The Second War with England, 1812-1815, secured inde- 
pendence for American commerce and gained the respect of 
European nations for the United States. 

Florida was purchased from Spain in 1819. 

By the Missouri Compromise, 1820, Missouri was admitted 






FACTS TO BE MEMORIZED 305 

as a slave state, while slavery was prohibited in all the rest of 
the Louisiana Territory north of 36° 30'. 

The Erie Canal was completed in 1825. 

The first American railroad was begun in 1828. 

The Mexican War, 1846-1848, was caused by the annexation 
of Texas and a dispute over its southern boundary. 

The Mexican War, in which the Americans won every 
battle, resulted in fixing the boundary at the Rio Grande, and 
in the purchase from Mexico of CaUfornia and other territory. 

Gold was discovered in California in 1848. 

By the Compromise of 1850, California was admitted into the 
Union as a free state, and Utah and New Mexico were allowed 
to decide for themselves whether they would be free or slave. 

The Kansas-Nebraska Law, 1854, repealed the Missouri 
Compromise and allowed the territories to decide the slave 
question for themselves. 

The Dred Scott Decision, 1857, permitted slavery in all the 
territories. 

The Civil War 

The Civil War, 1861-1865, was caused by slavery, and more 
directly by the secession of the southern states. 

In the Civil War the plan of the North was to blockade 
southern ports and thus cut off suppUes from the Confederacy; 
to open up the Mississippi and thus divide the Confederacy; 
and to capture Richmond, the seat of the Confederate govern- 
ment. 

The Monitar^Mern'mac engagement, 1862, prevented the 
Confederates from breaking up the blockade of the southern 
ports. 

By Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, January i, 1863, 
the slaves in the seceding states were declared free. 

The attempt of the Confederates to invade the North was 
ended by the battle of Gettysburg, July 1-3, 1863. 

The Confederacy was divided along the Mississippi by the 
capture of Vicksburg, July 4, 1863. 

Lee abandoned Richmond and surrendered to Grant in 
April, 1865. 

The Civil War resulted in the aDoUtion of slavery and the 
reunion of the states. 



3o6 APPENDIX 

Renewed Expansion 

Alaska was purchased from Russia in 1867. 

The War with Spain, 1898, was caused by cruel treatment of 
the Cubans by the Spaniards. 

During the Spanish War, Manila and Santiago were taken, 
and at the close Cuba was freed, Porto Rico was ceded to the 
United States, and the Philippines were bought from Spain. 

Our War with Germany, 1917-1918, was caused by cruel, 
unlawful, and aggressive acts of the German government. 



APPENDIX B 
REFERENCE TABLE OF THE STATES 



No. 



State 



Delaware 

Pennsylvania... . 

New Jersey 

Georgia 

Connecticut 

Massachusetts . . . 

Maryland 

South Carolina. . 
New Hampshire. 

Virginia 

New York 

North Carolina . 
Rhode Island . . . 

Vermont 

Kentucky 

Tennessee 

Ohi9. 

Louisiana 

Indiana 

Mississippi 

Illinois 

Alabama 

Maine 

Missouri 

Arkansas 

Michigan 

Florida 

Texas 

Iowa 

Wisconsin 

California 

Minnesota 

Oregon 

Kansas 

West Virginia . . . 

Nevada 

Nebraska 

Colorado 

North Dakota... 
South Dakota . . . 

Montana 

Washington 

Idaho 

Wvoming 

Utah 

Oklahoma 

New Mexico 

Arizona 



Derivation of name 



Lord Delaware 

Penn's Woodland 

Island of Jersey, in English Channel 

King George II 

Connecticut River (long tidal river) 

" At the great hill " — Indian 

Maria, queen of Charles I 

King Charles II 

Hampshire, in England 

Virgin Queen (Elizabeth) 

Duke of York 

King Charles II , 

Isle of Rhodes, in y^ilgean Sea 

" Green mountain " — French 

" Meadow land " — Indian 

" River with the great bend " — Indian 

" Beautiful river " — Indian 

Louis XIV, of France 

Purchased from Indians .' 

" Great Water " or " Father of Waters " — Indian 

" Superior men " — Indian 

" Here we rest " — Indian 

The main land, or, from a province of France 

" Muddy water " — Indian 

Indian tribe 

" Great water " — Indian 

" The flowery land " — Spanish , 

Indian tribe 

' ' Sleepy ones ' ' — Indian tribe , 

" W'ild rushing river " — Indian 

Name in an old Spanish romance 

" Cloudy water " — Indian 

" Wild sage " — Spanish 

" Smoky water " — Indian 

Virginia 

" Snow-clad " — Spanish 

" Shallow or broad water " — Indian 

' ' Blood red ' ' — Spanish 

I Dakota confederation of Indian tribes — " Allies 

" Mountainous region " — Spanish 

George Washington 

" Gem of the mountains " — Indian 

" Large plains " — Indian. 

" Mountain dweller " — Indian 

" Red people " — Indian 

Mexico (Mexitl ) — Aztec 

" Silver Bearing " — Aztec 



Date 



I7871 


> 


1787 


K- 


1787 


•^ 


1788 


n 


1788 




1788 


D" 


1788 


yi 


1788 





1788 


3 


1788 


^. 


1788 


c 


1789 




1790 J 


3 


I79I 




1792 




1796 




1803 




I8I2 




I8I6 




I8I7 




I8I8 




I8I9 




1820 




I82I 




18.^6 


> 


18.^7 


^ 


1845 


d 


1845 


r^ 


1846 


f^ 


1848 




1850 


y^ 


I8,S8 





i8,S9 


b- 


1861 





186,^ 


a 


1864 




1867 


3 


1876 




188Q 




1889 




188Q 




188Q 




1890 




1890 




1896 




1907 




1912 




1912^ 


) 



.307 



3o8 



APPENDIX 



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APPENDIX D 

REFERENCE LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS, IN 
CHRONOLOGICAL ORDER 

1783 September 3, Treaty of Peace signed at Paris. 

1783 November 25, British evacuated New York. 

1786 Shays's unsuccessful rebellion in Massachusetts. 

1787 Northwest Ordinance. 

1788 First settlement in Northwest Territory at Marietta, Ohio. 

1788 Constitution adopted, nine states having ratified. 

1789 Washington inaugurated. 

1790 Philadelphia made the capital. 

1798 Alien and Sedition Laws passed. 

1799 Washington died, at Mt. Vernon. 

1800 Washington became the capital. 

1 801-1805. .War with the Barbary States. 

1803 Louisiana Territory purchased. 

1804-1806. .Lewis and Clark expedition. 

1807 Fulton's Clermont made its first trip. 

1807 English Leopard fired on American Chesapeake. 

1808 Importation of slaves stopped. 

1809 Abraham Lincoln born. 

181 1 General Harrison defeated the Indians at Tippecanoe, Ind. 

1812-1815. .Second War with England. 

1812 June 18, war declared. 

1812 August 16, Hull surrendered Detroit to the English. 

1812 August 19, Constitution defeated the Guerriere. 

1812 October 13, Americans defeated at Queenstown, Canada. 

1813 September 10, Americans under Perry defeated British 

fleet on Lake Erie. 

1813 October 5, British defeated at Battle of the Thames. 

1814 July 25, British repulsed at Lundy's Lane. 

1814 August 24, British captured Washington. 

309 



3IO APPENDIX 

1814 September 11, Americans under McDonough defeated 

British fleet on Lake Champlain. 

181 4 December 24, Treaty of Peace signed at Ghent. 

181 5 January 8, British defeated at Battle of New Orleans. 

1818 Seminoles defeated. 

1 81 9 Florida purchased. 

1820 Missouri Compromise. 

1823 Monroe Doctrine declared. 

1825 Erie Canal opened. 

1828 First railroad begun. 

1832 South Carolina declared nullification. 

1837 Morse patented telegraph. 

1846 Howe patented sewing machine. 

1846-1848. .Mexican War. 

1847 February 23, Mexicans defeated at Buena Vista. 

1847 March 29, Americans captured Vera Cruz. 

1847 September 14, Americans captured Mexico city. 

1848 Gold discovered in California. 

1854 Kansas- Nebraska law. 

1854 Japan made her first foreign treaty with the United States. 

1857 Dred Scott decision. 

1858 First Atlantic cable laid. 

1858 Lincoln-Douglas debates. 

1859 John Brown raided Harpers Ferry. 

i860 December 20, South Carolina seceded. 

1861 February 4, Confederate Government organized. 

1 861 March 4, Lincoln inaugurated. 

1 861-1865. .Civil War. 

1 861 April 14, Fort Sumter taken by Confederates. 

1 861 July 21, Battle of Bull Run. 

1 861 November 8, Mason and Slidell captured. 

1862 February 16, Fort Donelson surrendered to Federals. 

1862 March 9, Monitor- Merrimac engagement. 

1862 April 6-7, Battle of Shiloh. 

1862 April 16, Slavery abolished in District of Columbia. 

1862 April 25, New Orleans captured by Farragut. 

1862 June 25-July I, Seven Days' Battles. 

1862 August 29-30, Second Battle of Bull Run. 

1862 September 17, Battle of Antietam. 

1862 December 13, Battle of Fredericksburg. 



REFERENCE LIST OF IMPORTANT EVENTS 311 

1863 January i, Emancipation Proclamation. 

1863 May 2, Battle of Chancellorsville. 

1863 July 1-3, Battle of Gettysburg. 

1863 July 4, Vicksburg surrendered. 

1863 September 19-20, Battle of Chickamauga. 

1863 November 19, Gettysburg battlefield dedicated. 

1863 November 24-25, Battle of Chattanooga. 

1864 May 5, 6, Battle of the Wilderness. 

1864 June 19, Alabama sunk by Kearsarge. 

1864 August 5, Battle of Mobile Bay. 

1864 September 2, Atlanta captured. 

1864 October 19, Battle of Cedar Creek. 

1864 November 15, Sherman began his march to the sea. 

1864 December 15, 16, Battle of Nashville. 

1865 April I, Battle of Five Forks. 

1865 April 3, Richmond evacuated. 

1865 April 9, Lee surrendered at Appomattox Court House. 

1865 April 14, Lincoln assassinated. 

1865 Thirteenth Amendment ratified. 

1868 President Johnson impeached by the House; but was not 

convicted. 

1868 Fourteenth Amendment ratified. 

1869 First transcontinental railroad. 

1870 Fifteenth Amendment ratified. 

1871 Chicago fire. 

1876 Centennial Exhibition, at Philadelphia. 

1876 Telephone invented. 

1876 Custer's army destroyed by Indians. 

1878 Electric light perfected. 

1 88 1 Garfield assassinated. 

1883 Letter postage reduced from 3 cents to 2 cents. 

1886 Statue of Liberty unveiled, New York. 

1898 February 15, Maine destroyed in Havana Harbor. 

1898 War with Spain. 

1898 April 25, Congress declared war. 

1898 May I, Battle of Manila. 

1898 July 1-3, Battle of San Juan. 

1898 July 3, Battle of Santiago. 

1898 December 10, Treaty with Spain signed at Paris. 

1898 Hawaii annexed. 



312, APPENDIX 

1899 First Peace Conference met at Hague. 

1900 Galveston disaster. 

1901 President McKinley assassinated. 

1902 Anthracite strike in Pennsylvania. 

1903 Pacific cable completed. 

1903 Alaska boundary settled. 

1903 Republic of Panama recognized by the United States. 

1904 Baltimore fire. 

1906 San Francisco earthquake. 

1908 Aeroplane flight at Fort Myer. 

1914 Panama Canal completed. 

191 7 April 6, War wilh Germany. 

191 8 November 11, signing of the armistice. 



APPENDIX E 

CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 

We, the people of the United States, in order to form a more per- 
fect union, establish justice, insure domestic tranquillity, provide for the 
common defense, promote the general welfare, and secure the bless- 
ings of liberty to ourselves and our posterity, do ordain and establish 
this constitution for the United States of America. 

ARTICLE I 

SECTION I 

All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a congress of 
the United States, which shall consist of a senate and house of rep- 
resentatives. 

SECTION II 

1. The house of representatives shall be composed of members 
chosen every second year by the people of the several states, and the 
electors in each state shall have the qualifications requisite for electors 
of the most numerous branch of the state legislature. 

2. No person shall be a representative who shall not have attained 
the age of twenty-five years, and been seven years a citizen of the United 
States, and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state 
in which he shall be chosen. 

3. Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the 
several states which may be included within this Union, according to 
their respective numbers, which shall be determined by adding to the 
whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a 
term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three fifths of all other 
persons. The actual enumeration shall be made within three years 
after the first meeting of the congress of the United States, and within 
every subsequent term of ten years, in such manner as they shall by law 
direct. The number of representatives shall not exceed one for every 

313 



314 



APPENDIX 



thirty thousand, but each state shall have at least one representative ; 
and until such enumeration shall be made, the state of New Hampshire 
shall be entitled to choose three, Massachusetts eight, Rhode Island 
and Providetice Plantations one, Connecticut five, New York six, New 
Jersey four, Pennsylvania eight, Delaware one, Maryland six, Virginia 
ten, North Carolina five. South Carolina five, and Georgia three. 

4. When vacancies happen in the representation from any state, 
the executive authority thereof shall issue writs of election to fill such 



vacancies. 

5. The house of representatives shall choose their speaker and other 
officers, and shall have the sole power of impeachment. 

SECTION ni 

1. The senate of the United States shall be composed of two sena- 
tors from each state, [chosen by the legislature thereof,]^ for six years; 
and each senator shall have one vote. 

2. Immediately after they shall be assembled in consequence of the 
first election, they shall be divided as equally as may be into three 
classes. The seats of the senators of the first class shall be vacated 
at the expiration of the second year ; of the second class, at the ex- 
piration of the fourth year, and of the third class, at the expiration 
of the sixth year, so that one third may be chosen every second year ; 
[and if vacancies happen by resignation or otherwise during the recess 
of the legislature of any state, the executive thereof may make tem- 
porary appointments until the next meeting of the legislature, which 
shall then fill such vacancies.] ^ 

3. No person shall be a senator who shall not have attained to the 
age of thirty years, and been nine years a citizen of the United States, 
and who shall not, when elected, be an inhabitant of that state for 
which he shall be chosen. 

4. The vice president of the United States shall be president of the 
senate, but shall have no vote, unless they be equally divided. 

5. The senate shall choose their other officers, and also a president 
pro tempore in the absence of the vice president, or when he shall exer- 
cise the office of president of the United States. 

6. The senate shall have the sole power to try all impeachments. 

* Superseded by seventeenth amendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 3^5 

When sitting for that purpose they shall be on oath or affirmation. 
When the president of the United States is tried, the chief justice shall 
preside; and no person shall be convicted without the concurrence of 
two thirds of the members present. 

7. Judgment in cases of impeachment shall not extend further than 
to removal from office, and disqualification to hold and enjoy any office 
of honor, trust, or profit under the United States; but the party con- 
victed shall, nevertheless, be liable and subject to indictment, trial, 
judgment, and punishment, according to law. 

SECTION IV 

1. The times, places, and manner of holding elections for senators 
and representatives shall be prescribed in each state by the legislature 
thereof; but the congress may at any time by law make or alter such 
regulations, except as to the places of choosing senators. 

2. The congress shall assemble at least once in every year, and such 
meeting shall be on the first Monday in December, unless they shall by 
law appoint a different day. 

SECTION V 

1. Each house shall be the judge of the elections, returns, and 
qualifications of its own members, and a majority of each shall consti- 
tute a quorum to do business; but a smaller number may adjourn from 
day to day, and may be authorized to compel the attendance of absent 
members, in such manner and under such penalties, as each house 
may provide. 

2. Each house may determine the rules of its proceedings, punish 
its members for disorderly behavior, and with the concurrence of two 
thirds, expel a member. 

3. Each house shall keep a journal of its proceedings, and from 
time to time publish the same, excepting such parts as may in their 
judgment require secrecy; and the yeas and nays of the members of 
either house on any question shall, at the desire of one fifth of those 
present, be entered on the journal. 

4. Neither house, during the session of congress, shall, without the 
consent of the other, adjourn for more than three days, nor to any other 
place than that in which the two houses shall be sitting. 



3i6 APPENDIX 

SECTION VI 

1. The senators and representatives shall receive a compensation 
for their services, to be ascertained by law, and paid out of the treasury 
of the United States. They shall in all cases, except treason, felony, 
and breach of the peace, be privileged from arrest during their attend- 
ance at the session of their respective houses, and in going to and return- 
ing from the same; and for any speech or debate in either house, they 
shall not be questioned in any other place. 

2. No senator or representative shall, during the time for which he 
was elected, be appointed to any civil office under the authority of the 
United States, which shall have been created, or the emoluments whereof 
shall have been increased during such time; and no person holding any 
office under the United States, shall be a member of either house during 
his continuance in office. 

SECTION VII 

1. All bills for raising revenue shall originate in the house of rep- 
resentatives; but the senate may propose or concur with amendments 
as on other bills. 

2. Every bill which shall have passed the house of representatives 
and the senate, shall, before it becomes a law, be presented to the presi- 
dent of the United States; if he approve, he shall sign it, but if not he 
shall return it, with his objections, to that house in which it shall have 
originated, who shall enter the objections at large on their journal, and 
proceed to reconsider it. If after such reconsideration two thirds of that 
house shall agree to pass the bill, it shall be sent, together with the objec- 
tions, to the other house, by which it shall likewise be reconsidered, and 
if approved by two thirds of that house, it shall become a law. But in 
all such cases the votes of both houses shall be determined by yeas and 
nays, and the names of the persons voting for and against the bill shall 
be entered on the journal of each house respectively. If any bill shall 
not be returned by the president within ten days (Sundays excepted) 
after it shall have been presented to him, the same shall be a law, in like 
manner as if he had signed it, unless the congress by their adjournment 
prevent its return, in which case it shall not be a law. 

3. Every order, resolution, or vote to which the concurrence of the 
senate and house of representatives may be necessary (except on a ques- 
tion of adjournment) shall be presented to the president of the United 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 317 

States; and before the same shall take effect, shall be approved by him, 
or being disapproved by him, shall be repassed by two thirds of the sen- 
ate and house of representatives, according to the rules and limitations 
prescribed in the case of a bill. 

SECTION VIII 

The congress shall have power 

1. To lay and collect taxes, duties, imposts, and excises, to pay the 
debts and provide for the common defense and general welfare of the 
United States; but all duties, imposts, and excises shall be uniform 
throughout the United States; 

2. To borrow money on the credit of the United States; 

3. To regulate commerce with foreign nations, and among the several 
states, and with the Indian tribes; 

4. To establish an uniform rule of naturalization, and uniform laws 
on the subject of bankruptcies throughout the United States; 

5. To coin money, regulate the value thereof, and of foreign coin, 
and fix the standard of weights and measures; 

6. To provide for the punishment of counterfeiting the securities 
and current coin of the United States; 

7. To establish post ofl&ces and post roads; 

8. To promote the progress of science and useful arts, by securing 
for limited times to authors and inventors the exclusive right to their 
respective writings and discoveries; 

9. To constitute tribunals inferior to the supreme court; 

10. To define and punish piracies and felonies committed on the 
high seas, and offenses against the law^ of nations; 

11. To declare war, grant letters of marque and reprisal, and make 
rules concerning captures on land and water; 

12. To raise and support armies, but no appropriation of money to 
that use shall be for a longer term than two years; 

13. To provide and maintain a navy; 

14. To make rules for the government and regulation of the land 
and naval forces; 

15. To provide for calling forth the militia to execute the laws of the 
Union, suppress insurrections, and repel invasions; 

16. To provide for organizing, arming, and disciplining the militia, 
and for governing such part of them as may be employed in the service 



3i8 APPENDIX 

of the United States, reserving to the states respectively the appointment 
of the officers, and the authority of training the mihtia according to the 
discipline prescribed by congress; 

1 7. To exercise exclusive legislation in all cases whatsoever, over such 
district (not exceeding ten miles square) as may, by cession of particular 
states, and the acceptance of congress, become the seat of the government 
of the United States, and to exercise like authority over all places pur- 
chased by the consent of the legislature of the state in which the same 
shall be, for the erection of forts, magazines, arsenals, dockyards, and 
other needful buildings; and 

18. To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carry- 
ing into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by 
this constitution in the government of the United States, or in any 
department or officer thereof. 

SECTION IX 

1. The migration or importation of such persons as any of the 
states now existing shall think proper to admit, shall not be prohibited 
by the congress prior to the year one thousand eight hundred and eight, 
but a tax or duty may be imposed on such importation, not exceeding 
ten dollars for each person. 

2. The privilege of the writ of habeas corpus shall not be suspended, 
unless when in cases of rebellion or invasion the public safety may re- 
quire it. 

3. No bill of attainder or ex post facto law shall be passed. 

4. No capitation or other direct tax shall be laid, unless in propor- 
tion to the census or enumeration hereinbefore directed to be taken. 

5. No tax or duty shall be laid on articles exported from any state. 

6. No preference shall be given by any regulation of commerce or 
revenue to the ports of one state over those of another; nor shall vessels 
bound to or from one state, be obliged to enter, clear, or pay duties in 
another. 

7. No money shall be drawn from the treasury' but in consequence of 
appropriations made by law; and a regular statement and account of the 
receipts and expenditures of all public money shall be published from 
time to time. 

8. No title of nobility shall be granted by the United States; and 
no person holding any office of profit or trust under them shall, without 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 319 

the consent of the congress, accept of any present, emolument, office, or 
title, of any kind whatever, from any king, prince, or foreign state. 

SECTION X 

1. No state shall enter into any treaty, alliance, or confederation; 
grant letters of marque and reprisal; coin money; emit bills of credit; 
make anything but gold and silver coin a tender in payment of debts; 
pass any bill of attainder, ex post facto law, or law impairing the obliga- 
tion of contracts, or grant any title of nobility. 

2. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any imposts 
or duties on imports or exports, except what may be absolutely necessary 
for executing its inspection laws; and the net produce of all duties and 
imposts, laid by any state on imports or exports, shall be for the use of 
the treasury of the United States; and all such laws shall be subject to 
the revision and control of the congress. 

3. No state shall, without the consent of congress, lay any duty of 
tonnage, keep troops or ships of war in time of peace, enter into any 
agreement or compact with another state, or with a foreign power, or 
engage in war, unless actually invaded, or in such imminent danger as 
will not admit of delay. 

ARTICLE II 

SECTION I 

1. The executive power shall be vested in a president of the United 
States of America. He shall hold his office during the term of four years, 
and, together with the vice president, chosen for the same term, be elected 
as follows: 

2. Each state shall appoint, in such manner as the legislature 
thereof may direct, a number of electors, equal to the whole number of 
senators and representatives to which the state may be entitled in the 
congress; but no senator or representative, or person holding an office of 
trust or profit under the United States, shall be appointed an elector. 

[3. The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by ballot 
for two persons, of whom one at least shall not be an inhabitant of the 
same state with themselves. And they shall make a list of all the persons 
voted for, and of the number of votes for each; which list they shall sign 



320 APPENDIX 

and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of government of the United 
States, directed to the president of the senate. The president of the 
senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of representatives, 
open all the certificates; and the votes shall then be counted. The 
person having the greatest number of votes shall be the president, if 
such number be a majority of the whole number of electors appointed; 
and if there be more than one who have such majority, and have an 
equal number of votes, then the house of representatives, shall immedi- 
ately choose by ballot one of them for president; and if no person have 
a majority, then from the five highest on the list the said house shall in 
like manner choose the president. But in choosing the president the 
votes shall be taken by states, the representation from each state having 
one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall consist of a member or mem- 
bers from two thirds of the states, and a majority of all the states shall 
be necessary to a choice. In every case, after the choice of the president, 
the person having the greatest number of votes of the electors shall be 
the vice president. But if there should remain two or more who have 
equal votes, the senate shall choose from them by ballot the vice 
president.] ^ 

4. The congress may determine the time of choosing the electors, 
and the day on which they shall give their votes, which day shall be the 
same throughout the United States. 

5. No person except a natural born citizen, or a citizen of the United 
States at the time of the adoption of this constitution, shall be eligible to 
the office of president; neither shall any person be eligible to that office 
who shall not have attained to the age of thirty-five years, and been 
fourteen years a resident within the United States. 

6. In case of the removal of the president from office, or of his 
death, resignation, or inability to discharge the powers and duties of the 
said office, the same shall devolve on the vice president, and the congress 
may by law provide for the case of removal, death, resignation, or inabil- 
ity, both of the president and vice president, declaring what officer shall 
then act as president, and such officer shall act accordingly until the 
disability be removed or the president shall be elected. 

7. The president shall, at stated times, receive for his services a 
compensation, which shall neither be increased nor diminished during 

^Superseded by Twelfth Amendment. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 321 

the period for which he shall have been elected, and he shall not receive 
within that period any other emolument from the United States, or any 
of them. 

8. Before he enter on the execution of his ofi&ce, he shall take the 
following oath or affirmation: — 

"I do solemnly swear (or affirm) that I will faithfully execute the 
office of president of the United States, and will to the best of my ability 
preserve, protect, and defend the constitution of the United States." 

SECTION II 

1. The president shall be commander in chief of the army and 
navy of the United States, and of the militia of the several states, when 
called into the actual service of the United States; he may require the 
opinion, in writing, of the principal officer in each of the executive depart- 
ments, upon any subject relating to the duties of their respective offices, 
and he shall have power to grant reprieves and pardons for ofifenses 
against the United States, except in cases of impeachment. 

2. He shall have power, by and with the advice and consent of the 
senate, to make treaties, provided two thirds of the senators present 
concur; and he shall nominate, and by and with the advice and con- 
sent of the senate, shall appoint ambassadors, other public ministers 
and consuls, judges of the supreme court, and all other officers of the 
United States, whose appointments are not herein otherwise provided for, 
and which shall be established by law; but the congress may by law 
vest the appointment of such inferior officers as they think proper, in 
the president alone, in the courts of law or in the heads of departments. 

3. The president shall have power to fill up all vacancies that may 
happen during the recess of the senate, by granting commissions which 
shall expire at the end of their next session. 

SECTION III 

He shall from time to time give to the congress information of 
the state of the Union, and recommend to their consideration such 
measures as he shall judge necessary and expedient; he may, on extraor- 
dinary occasions, convene both houses, or either of them, and in case 
of disagreement between them, with respect to the time of adjournment, 
he may adjourn them to such time as he shall think proper; he shall 



32 2 APPENDIX 

receive ambassadors and other public ministers; he shall take care that 
the laws be faithfully executed, and shall commission all the oflQ.cers of 
the United States. 

SECTION IV 

The president, vice president, and all civil officers of the United 
States, shall be removed from office on impeachment for, and conviction 
of, treason, bribery, or other high crimes and misdemeanors. 

ARTICLE III 

SECTION I 

The judicial power of the United States shall be vested in one 
supreme court, and in such inferior courts as the congress may from 
time to time ordain and establish. The judges, both of the supreme and 
inferior courts, shall hold their offices during good behavior, and shall, 
at stated times, receive for their services a compensation, which shall 
not be diminished during their continuance in office. 

SECTION II 

1. The judicial power shall extend to all cases, in law and equity, 
arising under this constitution, the laws of the United States, and treaties 
made, or which shall be made, under their authority; to all cases affect- 
ing ambassadors, other public ministers and consuls; to all cases of 
admiralty and maritime jurisdiction; to controversies to which the 
United States shall be a party; to controversies between two or more 
states; between a state and citizens of another state; between citizens 
of different states; between citizens of the same state claiming lands 
under grants of different states, and between a state, or the citizens 
thereof, and foreign states, citizens or subjects. 

2. In all cases affecting ambassadors, other public ministers and 
consuls, and those in which a state shall be a party, the supreme court 
shall have original jurisdiction. In all the other cases before mentioned, 
the supreme court shall have appellate jurisdiction, both as to law and 
fact, with such exceptions and under such regulations as the congress 
shall make. 

3. The trial of all crimes, except in cases of impeachment, shall be 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 323 

by jury; and such trial shall be held in the state where the said crimes 
shall have been committed; but when not committed within any state, 
the trial shall be at such place or places as the congress may by law 
have directed. 

SECTION in 

1. Treason against the United States shall consist only in levying 
war against them, or in adhering to their enemies, giving them aid and 
comfort. No person shall be convicted of treason unless on the testi- 
mony of two witnesses to the same overt act, or on confession in open 
court. 

2. The congress shall have power to declare the punishment of 
treason, but no attainder of treason shall work corruption of blood or 
forfeiture except during the life of the person attainted. 

ARTICLE IV 

SECTION I 

Full faith and credit shall be given in each state to the public 
acts, records, and judicial proceedings of every other state. And the 
congress may by general laws prescribe the manner in which such acts, 
records, and proceedings shall be proved, and the effect thereof. 

SECTION n 

1. The citizens of each state shall be entitled to all privileges and 
immunities of citizens in the several states. 

2. A person charged in any state with treason, felony, or other 
crime, who shall flee from justice, and be found in another state, shall, 
on demand of the executive authority of the state from which he fled, 
be delivered up, to be removed to the state having jurisdiction of the 
crime. 

3. No person held to service or labor in one state, under the laws 
thereof, escaping into another, shall, in consequence of any law or regu- 
lation therein, be discharged from such service or labor, but shall be 
delivered up on claim of the party to whom such service or labor may 
be due. 

SECTION in 

I. New states may be admitted by the congress into this Union; 



324 APPENDIX 

but no new state shall be formed or erected within the jurisdiction oi 
any other state; nor any state be formed by the junction of two or more 
states or parts of states, without the consent of the legislatures of the 
states concerned as well as of the congress. 

2. The congress shall have power to dispose of and make all need- 
ful rules and regulations respecting the territory or other property 
belonging to the United States; and nothing in this constitution shall 
be so construed as to prejudice any claims of the United States or of 
any particular state. 

SECTION IV 

The United States shall guarantee to every state in this Union a 
republican form of government, and shall protect each of them against 
invasion, and on application of the legislature, or of the executive (when 
the legislature cannot be convened), against domestic violence. 

ARTICLE V 

The congress, whenever two thirds of both houses shall deem it 
necessary, shall propose amendments to this constitution, or, on the 
application of the legislatures of two thirds of the several states, shall 
call a convention for proposing amendments, which, in either case, shall 
be valid to all intents and purposes, as part of this constitution, when 
ratified by the legislatures of three fourths of the several states, or by 
conventions in three fourths thereof, as the one or the other mode of 
ratification may be proposed by the congress; provided that no amend- 
ment which may be made prior to the year one thousand eight hundred 
and eight shall in any manner affect the first and fourth clauses in the 
ninth section of the first article; and that no state, without its consent, 
shall be deprived of its equal suffrage in the senate. 

ARTICLE VI 

1. All debts contracted and engagements entered into, before the 
adoption of this constitution, shall be as valid against the United States 
under this constitution as under the confederation. 

2. This constitution, and the laws of the United States which shall 
be made in pursuance thereof, and all treaties made, or which shall be 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 325 

made, under the authority of the United States, shall be the supreme 
law of the land; and the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, 
anything in the constitution or laws of any state to the contrary notwith- 
standing. 

3. The senators and representatives before mentioned, and the mem- 
bers of the several state legislatures, and all executive and judicial 
officers, both of the United States and of the several states, shall be 
bound by oath or affirmation to support this constitution; but no reli- 
gious test shall ever be required as a quaUfication to any office or public 
trust under the United States. 

ARTICLE VII 

The ratification of the conventions of nine states shall be suf- 
ficient for the establishment of this constitution between the states so 
ratifying the same. 

Done in convention by the unanimous consent of the states present, 
the seventeenth day of September, in the year of our Lord one 
thousand seven hundred and eighty-seven, and of the independ- 
ence of the United States of America the twelfth. In witness 
whereof, we have hereunto subscribed our names. 



326 APPENDIX 



AMENDMENTS 

ARTICLE I 

Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of re- 
ligion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom 
of speech or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to as- 
semble, and to petition the government for a redress of grievances 

ARTICLE II 

A well-regulated militia being necessary to the security of a free 
state, the right of the people to keep and bear arms shall not be infringed. 

ARTICLE III 

No soldier shall, in time of peace, be quartered in any house with- 
out the consent of the owner, nor in time of war, but in a manner to 
be prescribed by law. 

ARTICLE IV 

The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, 
and efifects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be 
violated, and no warrants shall issue but upon probable cause, sup- 
ported by oath or af&rmation, and particularly describing the place to 
be searched, and the persons or things to be seized. 

ARTICLE V 

No person shall be held to answer for a capital or otherwise in- 
famous crime, unless on a presentment or indictment of a grand jury, 
except in cases arising in the land or naval forces, or in the militia, 
when in actual service in time of war or public danger; nor shall any 
person be subject for the same offense to be twice put in jeopardy of 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 327 

life or limb; nor shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness 
against himself, nor be deprived of life, liberty, or property, without due 
process of law; nor shall private property be taken for public use with- 
out just compensation. 

ARTICLE VI 

In all criminal prosecutions the accused shall enjoy the right to 
a speedy and public trial, by an impartial jury of the state and district 
wherein the crime shall have been committed, which district shall have 
been previously ascertained by law, and to be informed of the nature and 
cause of the accusation; to be confronted with the witnesses against 
him; to have compulsory process for obtaining witnesses in his favor, and 
to have the assistance of counsel for his defense. 

ARTICLE VII 

In suits at common law, where the value in controversy shall ex- 
ceed twenty dollars, the right of trial by jury shall be preserved, and no 
fact tried by a jury shall be otherwise re-examined in any court of the 
United States, than according to the rules of the common law. 

ARTICLE VIII 

Excessive bail shall not be required, nor excessive fines imposed, nor 
cruel and unusual punishments inflicted. 

ARTICLE IX 

The enumeration in the constitution of certain rights shall not be 
construed to deny or disparage others retained by the people. 

ARTICLE X 

The powers not delegated to the United States by the constitution, 
nor prohibited by it to the states, are reserved to the states respec- 
tively or to the people. 

ARTICLE XI 

The judicial power of the United States shall not be construed to 
extend to any suit in law or equity, commenced or prosecuted against 



328 APPENDIX 

one of the United States by citizens of another state, or by citizens or sub- 
jects of any foreign state. 

ARTICLE XII 

The electors shall meet in their respective states and vote by bal- 
lot for president and vice president, one of whom, at least, shall not be 
an inhabitant of the same state with themselves; they shall name in their 
ballots the person voted for as president, and in distinct ballots the per- 
son voted for as vice president and they shall make distinct lists of all 
persons voted for as president, and of all persons voted for as vice 
president, and of the number of votes for each; which lists they shall 
sign and certify, and transmit sealed to the seat of the government of 
the United States, directed to the president of the senate. The presi- 
dent of the senate shall, in the presence of the senate and house of 
representatives, open all the certificates and the votes shall then be 
counted. The person having the greatest number of votes for presi- 
dent, shall be the president, if such number be a majority of the 
whole number of electors appointed; and if no person have such ma- 
jority, then from the persons having the highest numbers not exceed- 
ing three on the list of those voted for as president, the house of rep- 
resentatives shall choose immediately, by ballot, the president. But in 
choosing the president, the votes shall be taken by states, the represen- 
tation from each state having one vote; a quorum for this purpose shall 
consist of a member or members from two thirds of the states, and a 
majority of all the states shall be necessary to a choice. And if the 
house of representatives shall not choose a president whenever the right 
of choice shall devolve upon them, before the fourth day of March next 
following, then the vice president shall act as president, as in the case 
of the death or other constitutional disability of the president. 

The person having the greatest number of votes as vice president, 
shall be the vice president, if such number be a majority of the whole 
number of electors appointed, and if no person have a majority, then 
from the two highest numbers on the list the senate shall choose the 
vice president; a quorum for the purpose shall consist of two thirds of 
the whole number of senators, and a majority of the whole number shall 
be necessary to a choice. But no person constitutionally ineligible to 
the office of president shall be eligible to that of vice president of the 
United States. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 329 



ARTICLE XIII 

Section i. Neither slavery nor involuntary servitude, except as a pun- 
ishment for crime whereof the party shall have been duly convicted, shall 
exist within the United States, or any place subject to their jurisdiction. 

Sec. 2. Congress shall have power to enforce this article by appro- 
priate legislation. 

ARTICLE XIV 

Section i. All persons born or naturalized in the United States and 
subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citizens of the United States and 
of the state wherein they reside. No state shall make or enforce any 
law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the 
United States; nor shall any state deprive any person of life, liberty, or 
property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its 
jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws. 

Sec. 2. Representatives shall be apportioned among the several 
states according to their respective numbers, counting the whole num- 
ber of persons in each state, excluding Indians not taxed. But when 
the right to vote at any election for the choice of electors for president 
and vice president of the United States, representatives In congress, the 
executive and judicial ofl5cers of a state, or the members of the legisla- 
ture thereof, is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such state, being 
twenty-one years of age, and citizens of. the United States, or in any way 
abridged, except for participation in rebellion, or other crime, the basis 
of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the 
number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male 
citizens twenty-one years of age in such state. 

Sec. 3. No person shall be a senator or representative in congress, 
or elector of president and vice president, or hold any office, civil 
or militar)', under the United States, or under any state, who, having 
previously taken an oath, as a member of congress, or as an officer of 
the United States, or as a member of any state legislature, or as an exec- 
utive or judicial officer of any state, to support the constitution of the 
United States, shall have engaged in insurrection or rebellion against 
the same, or given aid or comfort to the enemies thereof. But congress 
may, by a vote of two thirds of each house, remove such disability. 

Sec. 4. The validity of the public debt of the United States, 



330 APPENDIX 

authorized by law, including debts incurred for payment of pensions 
and bounties for services in suppressing insurrection or rebellion, shall 
not be questioned. But neither the United States nor any state shall 
assume or pay any debt or obligation incurred in aid of insurrection or 
rebellion against the United States, or any claim for the loss or em.anci- 
pation of any slave; but all such debts, obligations, and claims shall be 
held illegal and void. 

Sec. 5. The Congress shall have power to enforce, by appropriate 
legislation, the provisions of this article. 

ARTICLE XV 

Section i. The right of citizens of the United States to vote shall 
not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on 
account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude. 

Sec. 2. The congress shall have power to enforce this article by 
appropriate legislation. 

ARTICLE XVI 

The congress shall have power to lay and collect taxes on incomes, 
from whatever source derived, without apportionment among the 
several states, and without regard to any census or enumeration. 

ARTICLE XVII 

The senate of the United States shall be composed of two senators 
from each state, elected by the people thereof, for six years ; and 
each senator shall have one vote. The electors in each state shall 
have the qualifications requisite for electors of the most numerous 
branch of the state legislatures. 

When vacancies happen in the representation of any state in the 
senate, the executive authority of such state shall issue writs of elec- 
tion to fill such vacancies: Provided, That the legislature of any 
state may empower the executive thereof to make temporary appoint- 
ments until the people fill the vacancies by election as the legislature 
may direct. 

This amendment shall not be so construed as to affect the election 
or term of any senator chosen before it becomes valid as part of the 
constitution. 



CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES 331 



ARTICLE XVIII 

Section i. After one year from the ratification of this article the 
manufacture, sale, or transportation of intoxicating liquors within, 
the importation thereof into, or the exportation thereof from the 
United States and all territory subject to the jurisdiction thereof for 
beverage purposes is hereby prohibited. 

Sec. 2. The congress and the several states shall have concurrent 
power to enforce this article by appropriate legislation. 

Sec. 3. This article shall be inoperative unless it shall have been 
ratified as an amendment to the constitution by the legislatures of 
the several states, as provided in the constitution, within seven years 
from the date of the submission hereof to the states by the congress. 



7.// ff 



INDEX 



Abolitionists, 102. 

in the North, 93. 

in the South, 96. 
Adams, John (i 735-1826), 13, 20. 
Adams, John Quincy (1767-1848), 67. 
A'er-o-plane, picture, 233. 
Agriculture, Department of, 190. 
Aguinaldo (ah-gee-nahl'do), 225. 
Alabama, admitted, 91. 
Alabama claims, 174. 
Alaska, 193. 

Allegheny Mountains, crossing the, 178. 
Amendments, 13th, 14th, 15th, 169. 
American Federation of Labor, 232. 
American soldier, picture, 214. 
Anderson, Robert (1805-1871), 117, 156. 
An-tie'tam (-tee'), battle of, 131. 
Ap-po-mat'tox Court House, 155. 
Arbitration, with England, 174. 

between England and Venezuela, 250. 
Arizona, admitted, 234. 
Ar'kan-sas (-saw), admitted, 92. 
Army, disbanding northern, 171. 

feeding an, 150. 
Arthur, Chester A. (1830-1886), 199. 
Articles of Confederation, 6. 
Atlantic Cable, 194. 
Aviation, 233. 

Balance of States, 89, 91, 93. 
Baltimore, and first railroad, 57. 

attacked, 46. 

fire, 234. 

newspaper in, 59. 
Bar'ba-ry States, 31. 
Beau're-gard (bo'). General (1818- 

1893), 127. 
Bell, Alexander G. (1847- ), 262. 
Blockade of southern ports, 123. 



Blockade runner, picture, 124, 
Blockhouse, Spanish, picture, 216. 
Boone, Daniel (1735-1820), 179. 
Border States, 122. 
Boston, fire in, 196. 

newspaper in, 59. 
Boul'der (bol'), founded, 191. 
Boxers' uprising, 226. 
Braddock, General, 2. 
Branding iron, picture, 29. 
Brooms, introduced, 61. 
Brown, John (i 800-1 859), 103. 
Bu:chan'an (-kan'), James (1791-1868), 

105, 109. 
Bue'na Vis'ta (bu'), battle of, 71. 
Buffalo, and Erie Canal, 54- 

exposition, 270. 
Buffalo, herd of, picture, 188. 
Bull Run, first battle, 127. 

second battle, 131. 
Burns, Anthony, 100. 
Butler, General (1818-1893), 134. 

Cal-houn' (-boon'), John C. (1782- 

1850), 37, 98. 
California, admitted, 92, 187. 

gold in, 186. 
Canada, in Civil War, 141. 

in War of 181 2, 37. 
Canal, Erie, 53. 

Panama, 228. 
Capital, national, 15. 
Carpetbaggers, 170. 
Carpets, in America, 61. 
Carroll, Charles (1737-1832), 57. 
Carson, Christopher (1809-1868), 182. 
Cattle ranches, 255. 
Cemetery Ridge, battle of, 147. 
Census, first, 15. 



333 



334 



INDEX 



Cervera (ther-va'rah), Admiral, 211,217. 
Chan'cel-lors-ville, battle of, 135. 
Charleston, earthquake, 197. 
Chat-ta-noo'ga, battle of, 149. 
Chesapeake, 2)3, 43- 
Chicago, exposition, 265. 

fire, 196. 

founded, 64. 
Chick-a-mau'ga, battle of, 149. 
China, open door in, 226. 
Cities, life in, 240-247. 
Civil Service reform, 199. 
Civil War, 11 5-1 58. 
Clark, William (1770-1838), 29. 
Clay, Henry (1777-1852), 37, 92, 97. 
Cler'monl, 52. 
Cleveland, Grover (1837-1908), 200, 

266. 
Clinton, De Witt (1769-1828), 53. 
Coal, found in Pennsylvania, 58. 
Coal miners, 251. 
Coal strike, 232. 
Colorado, admitted, 191. 
Columbia River, discovered, 30. 
Commerce, Department of, 232. 
Compromise, of 1850, 92. 

Missouri, 92, 102. 
Confederate money, 144. 
Confederate soldier, picture, 142. 
Confederate States, and England, 122. 

enumerated, 120. 

formed, 109. 

"white house," picture, 121. 
Confederation, Articles of, 6. 
Constitution, framed, 11, 12. 

ratified, 12. 

slavery in, 85, 89. 
Constitution, 38, 39. 
Convention, Federal, 1787, 7. 
Cooper, Peter (1791-1883), 57. 
Copperheads, 140. 
Cotton, in Civil War, 116, 143. 

slaves picking, picture, 81. 
Cotton gin, 85. 
Cotton mill, picture, 62. 
Cris'pin, 62. 
Critical period, 4. 
Cuba, and Spain, 205. 

repubHc, 220. 
Culebra (coo-la'brah) Cut, picture, 229. 



Cumberlayid, destroyed, 125. 

Cumberland Road, 56. 

Custer, George A. (1839-1876), 192. 

Debt, national, 16, 173. 
Decatur, Stephen (1779-1820), 32, 41, 
Declaration of Independence, read, 260. 
Democratic party, 68. 
Democratic-Republican party, 25. 
Department, of Agriculture, 192. 

Commerce, 232. 

Labor, 232. 
Desert, Great American, 182. 
Detroit, in War of 181 2, 37, 45. 
Dew'ey, George (1837- ), 207. 

medal, picture, 210. 
District of Columbia, founded, 16. 
Doug'las (dug'), Stephen A. (1813- 

1861), 105. 
Draft riots, 141. 
Drake, quoted, 235. 
Dred Scott decision, 103. 

Eads (eedz), James B. (1820-1887), 189. 
Early, Jubal A. (1816-1894), 154. 
Earthquake, Charleston, 197. 

San Francisco, 234. 
Ed'i-son, Thomas A. (1847- ), 233. 
El Ca'ney (kah'na), taken, 214. 
ErU-cott Mills, railroad, 57. 
Emancipation, 95. 

Proclamation, 135. 
Em-bar'go Act, 36. 
England, and Confederacy, 122. 

and slavery, 78. 

and Spanish-American War, 207. 

seizes American ships, 34. 
Era of Good Feeling, 51. 
Ericsson (er'ik-son), John (1803-1889), 

126. 
Erie Canal, 53. 
Exposition, Centennial, 259. 

Columbian, 265. 

Louisiana Purchase, 273. 

Pan-American, 270. 

San Francisco, and others, 277. 

Fair Oaks, battle of, 128. 
Far'ra-gut (far'), David G. (1801-1870), 
133, 152. 



INDEX 



335 



Federal convention, 1787, 7- 
Federal Hall, N. Y., 14. 
Federalists, 19, 25. 
Field, Cyrus W. (1819-1892), 194. 
Fire, Baltimore, 234. 

Boston, 196. 

Chicago, 196. 
Flag, Perry's, 44. 

salute to, 223. 
Flatboat, picture, 179. 
Flood, Johnstown, 198. 
Florida, admitted, 92. 

purchased, 64. 
Foote, Andrew H. (1S06-1863), 134. 
Ford's Theater, picture, 160. 
Fort Dearborn, 64. 
Fort Donelson, 134. 
Fort Henry, 134. 
Fort McHenry, 46. 
Fort Myer, 233. 
Fort Sumter, 117. 

France, acquires Louisiana Territory, 
27. 

and Mexico, 173. 

and Statue of Liberty, 266. 

seizes American ships, 34. 

trouble with, 20. 
Franklin, Benjamin (i 706-1 790), in 
Federal convention, 8. 

printing press, picture, 264. 

statue, picture, 8. 
P'raunces' Tavern, 2. 

picture, 3. 
Fred'ericksburg, battle of, 131. 
Freedmen's Bureau, 168. 
Fre-mont', John C. (i 813-1890), 105, 

183. 
Fugitive slave law, 90, 98. 
Fulton, Robert (1765-1815), 51. 

Gads'den Purchase, 72. 

Galveston hurricane, 234. 

Garfield, James A. (1831-1881), 199. 

Gar'ri-son (gar'), WilHam L. (1804- 

1879), 93- 
Gatun (gah'toon) Dam, 229. 
Geneva Court (je-nee'va), 175. 
Georgia, and Indians, 65. 

slavery in, 83, 85. 
Gettysburg, battle of, 147. 



Gibbons, Cardinal, quoted, 274. 
Gilder, Richard W., quoted, 271. 
Gin (jin), cotton, 85. 
Goethals (guh'talz), George W. (1858- 

), 230. 
Gold, in Alaska, 193. 

California, 186. 

Pikes Peak, 192. 
Grant, Ulysses S. (1822-1885), at Fort 
Donelson, 134. 

at Vicksburg, 148. 

lieutenant general, 150. 

on Lee's surrender, 156. 

President, 199. 
Gray, Robert (1755-1806), 30, 
Great American Desert, 182. 
Greeley, Horace (1811-1872), 109. 
Guam (gwahm), acquired, 220. 
GuerriJre (gar-ryar'), 39- 

Hague Court (hag), 227. 
"Hail Columbia," written, 21. 
Halleck, Henry W. (1815-1872), 134. 

166. 
Hamilton, Alexander (1757-1804), 9, 

16. 
Harpers Ferry, 103. 
Harris, J. C, quoted, 82. 
Harrison, Benjamin (1833-1901), 200. 
Harrison, William H. (1773-1841), 45, 

68. 
Hartford, at Mobile Bay, 152. 
Hawaii (hah-wi'ee), annexed, 225. 
Hayes, Rutherford B. (1822-1893), 

203. 
Hayne, Robert T. (1791-1839), 97- 
Henry, Patrick (1736-1799), 93- 
Hobson, Richard P. (1870- ), 211. 
Homestead act, 190. 
Hooker, Joseph (1814-1879), 135. i49- 
Hospitals, in Civil War, 140. 
House of Representatives, 11. 
Hull, Isaac (1773-1843), 38. 
Hull, William (1753-1825), 37. 

Idaho, admitted, 191. 
lUinois, admitted, 91. 
Immigration, 238. 
Impressment of seamen, 34. 
Independence Hall, 260. 



336 



INDEX 



Indiana, admitted, gr. 
Indians, Carson and the, 184. 

in Louisiana Territory, 29. 

in West, 191. 
In-irep'id, 32. 

Inventions of early days, 60. 
Iowa, admitted, 92. 
Iron mines, 252. 
Island No. 10, captured, 134. 

Jackson, Andrew (1767-1845), general, 
47, 65. 

home, picture, 67. 

President, 67, 97. 
Jackson, Thomas J. (1824-1863), 130. 
Jamestown, and slavery, 78. 

centennial, 277. 
Jefferson, Thomas (1743-1826), 19, 25, 

93- 
Johnson, Andrew (i 808-1 875), 165. 
Johnston, Albert S. (1803-1862), 134. 
Johnston, Joseph E. (1807-1891), 127, 

128. 
Johnstown flood, 198. 

Kansas-Nebraska law, 102. 
Kentucky, admitted, 91. 

in Civil War, 122. 

settled, 55, i79- 
Kentucky Road, 180. 
Key, Francis Scott (17S0-1843), 46. 
Klondike gold fields, 194. 
Ku-Klux-Klan, 170. 

Labor, Department of, 232. 
La-drone' Islands, 220. 
Lawrence, James (1781-1813), 42. 
Lawrence, Perry's flagship, 43. 
Lee, Richard H. (1732-1794), 260. 
Lee, Robert E. (1807-1870), 129. 

at Gettysburg, 147. 

carries war into North, 131, 135. 

farewell to soldiers, 156. 
Leopard, 35. 

Lev'ees, Mississippi, broken, 234. 
Lewis, Meriwether (1774-1809), 29. 
Lewis and Clark Expedition, 29. 
Libby prison, 163. 
"Liberator," The, 94. 
Liberty, Statue of, 264. 



Lincoln (link'un), Abraham (1809- 
1865), 105. 

and Emancipation Proclamation, 135. 

and secession, no. 

and Trent Affair, 123. 

assassinated, 159. 

birth of, 105. 

call for troops, 119. 

childhood of, 180. 

debate with Douglas, 106. 

dedicates Gettysburg battlefield, 148. 

elected President, 107, 153. 

funeral of, 161. 

inaugurated, in. 

statue of, picture, 167. 
Longfellow, quoted, 278. 
Lookout Mountain, battle of, 149. 
Louisiana, admitted, 91. 
Louisiana Territory, and slavery, 92. 

purchased, 27. 
Louisville, 151. 
Lumbering, 248. 

McClellan, George B. (1826-1885), 128, 

153- 
Macdonough, Thomas (1783-1825), 45. 
McDowell, Irvin (1818-1885), 127. 
Macedonian, 41. 
McKinley, WiUiam (i 843-1 901), 231, 

275- 
Machinery and manufacturing, 63. 
Madison, Dolly, 45. 
Madison, James (1751-1836), 9, 37. 
Maine, admitted, 92. 
Maine, destroyed, 205, 206. 
Manila, schoolhouse, 223. 
Manila Bay, battle of, 208. 
Maryland, Lee in, 146. 

loyal in Civil War, 122. 
Mason and Sli'dell, 123. 
Match, sulphur, invented, 61. 
Max-i-mil'i-an, in Mexico, 174. 
Meade, George G. (1815-1872), 147. 
Memorial Day, 166. 
Merrimac, Hobson and the, 211. 
Merrimac and Monitor, 124. 
Mexico, civil war in, 173. 

war with United States, 71. 
Mexico, city of, taken, 72. 
Michigan, admitted, 92. 



INDEX 



337 



Miles, Nelson A. (1839- ), i93- 

Mining, 251. 

Mint, first, 17. 

Mississippi, admitted, 91. 

Mississippi River, and steamboat, 53. 

bridge over, 189. 

floods on, 234. 

in Civil War, 132, 148. 
Missouri, admitted, 92. 

in Civil War, 122. 
Missouri Compromise, 92, 102. 
Mo-bile' Bay (mo-beel'), battle of, 152. 
Mohawk valley, 55. 
Money, paper, in Civil War, 144, 173. 
Monitor, 124. 

Monroe, James (1758-1831), 51. 
Monroe Doctrine, 66. 

and England, 200. 

and Mexico, 173. 
Montana, admitted, 191. 
Montgomery, Confederate capital, 118. 
Mon-ti-cel'lo, picture, 26. 
Morse, Samuel F. B. (1791-1872), 60. 
Mount Vernon, 4, 13. 

Napier, J. T., quoted, 219. 

Napoleon, and Louisiana Territory, 28. 

and steamboat, 52. 
Napoleon III, and Mexico, 173. 
National Pike, 56. 
Naval cannon, picture, 32. 
Navy, in Civil War, 123. 

in Spanish War, 207-213, 217. 

in War of 181 2, 35. 

in War with TripoH, 31. 
Nebraska, admitted, 189. 
New Hampshire, ratifies Constitution, 

12. 
New Mexico, admitted, 234. 
New Orleans, battle of, 47. 

captured, 132. 

in Louisiana Territory, 27. 

opened to largest steamers, 189. 
New York city, and Erie Canal, 55. 

draft riots in, 141. 

life in, 239-245. 

made capital, 14. 

newspaper in, 59. 
Newspapers, early, 59. 
Niagara, Perry's flagship, 44. 



Non-intercourse act, 36. 
Norfolk, and blockade, 124. 
North, aboHtion in, 93. 

and Fugitive Slave Law, 99. 

and right of nullification, 99. 

at close of Civil War, 171. 

attitude of, towards secession, 117. 

effects of war on, 139. 

soldiers of, 164. 
North Carolina, and slavery, 85. 

migration from, 55, 179. 
North Dakota, admitted, 191. 
North Pole, discovered, 234. 
Northmen, boat of, picture, 266. 
Northwest Territory, 5, 37, 43, 90. 
Nul-li-fi-ca'tion, 96. 

Ogden, and the railroad, 188. 
Ohio, admitted, 91. 

and Erie Canal, 55. 
Oklahoma, admitted, 234. 
Olympia, Dewey's ship, 209. 
Omaha, and the railroad, 187. 
Ordinance of 1787, 5, 90. 
Oregon, battleship, 228. 
Oregon Country, 69. 

Panama Canal, 228. 

Paper money. Confederate, 144. 

United States, 173. 
Paris, Treaty of, 2, 3. 
Parker, Theodore (i 810-1860), 94. 
Parties, political, begin, 19. 
Pear'y (peer'y), Robert E. (1856- 

234- 
Pen-in'su-lar campaign, 128. 
Pennsylvania, coal found in, 58. 

migration from, 55. 

strike in, 232. 
Perry, Oliver H. (1785-1819), 43- 
Petersburg, 155. 
Philadelphia, exposition, 259. 

Federal convention, 7. 

made national capital, 16. 

ovation to Washington, 14. 
Philadelphia, cruiser, 32. 
PhiHppines, acquired, 220. 

in Spanish war, 207, 208. 

scene in, picture, 224. 
Philhps, Wendell (1811-1884), 94- 



33^ 



INDEX 



Pierce, Franklin (1804-1869), 105. 

Pikes Peak, gold at, 190. 

Pinckney, Charles C. (1746-1825), 20. 

Pioneers, 55, 105, 180. 

Pirate, Tripolitan, picture, 31. 

Pittsburgh, steel center, 246. 

Plantation life, 80. 

Political parties begin, 19. 

Polk (pok), James K. (1795-1849), 68, 

105. 
Pope, John (1822-1892), 131. 
Porto Rico, acquired, 220. 
Prison life, 162. 

Proclamation of Emancipation, 135. 
P'leb'lo (pweb'), founded, 191. 

"Quaker guns," 128. 

Railroads, early, 56. 

first continental, 187. 
Railroad train, in 183 1, picture, 58. 
Ranches, 255. 
Rap-i-dan' River, 153. 
Read, T. B., quoted, 154. 
Reaper, invented, 61. 
Reaper and thresher, picture, 254. 
Re-con-struc'tion, 166. 
Red Cross Society, 218. 
Republican party, 177. 
Reynolds, John F. (1820-1863), 147. 
Rhode Island, ratified Constitution, 12. 
Richmond, abandoned, 156. 

capital of Confederacy, 156. 

"on to Richmond," 127. 
Rio Grande (ree'o grahn'da) , boundary', 

72. 
Riots, draft, 141. 
Roosevelt (ro'ze-velt), Theodore (1858- 

), 231, 274. 
Rosecrans (ro'ze-cranz), William S. 

(1819-1898), 149. 
Russia, and Alaska, 193! 

and Monroe Doctrine, 67. 
Ryan, Father, quoted, 130. 

Sacramen'to, and the railroad, 187. 
St. Louis, bridge at, 189. 

exposition at, 273. 
Salute to flag, 223. 
Sampson, William T. (1840-1902), 211. 



San Francisco, earthquake, 234. 

exposition at, 277. 

picture, 186. 
San Juan (hwahn), taken, 216. 
Santiago (sahn-tee-ah'go), 211, 219. 
Savannah, taken by Federals, 152. 
Schley (shli), Winfield S. (1839-1911), 

211. 
Scott, Dred, 103. 
Scott, Winfield (1786-1866), 72. 
Seaman, American, picture, 35. 
Secession, question of, settled, 169. 
Sem'i-nole Indians, 65. 
Senate, 11, 89. 
Seven Days' battles, 131. 
Shannon, 42. 

Shen-an-do'ah valley, 130, 153. 
Sher'i-dan, PhiHp H. (1831-1888), 149, 

154, 192. 
Sherman, William T. (1820-1891), 149. 
Shi'loh, battle of, 134. 
Sitting Bull, 192. 
Slavery, abolished, 167. 

and cotton, 85. 

forbidden in Northwest Territory, 6. 

importation, 90. 

in America, 78. 

in Constitution, 85, 89. 

origin of, 77. 
Slaves, gangs, 83. 

life of, 80. 

song, 82. 
Soldier, American, picture, 214. 

Confederate, picture, 142. 

Spanish, picture, 215. 

Union, picture, 140. 
South, after the Civil War, 171. 

and Memorial Day, 168. 

and prisoners of war, 164. 

plans of, 116. 
South Carolina, and nullification, 97. 

and slavery, 83, 85. 

secedes, 107. 
South Dakota, admitted, 191. 
Spain, and Cuba, 205. 

and Florida, 65. 

and Monroe Doctrine, 66. 

and slavery, 78. 

war with, 207. 
Spanish blockhouse, picture, 216. 



INDEX 



339 



Spanish officer, picture, 215. 

Spinning wheel, picture, 62. 

Spoils system, 68. 

Springfield, 111., home of Lincoln, 161. 

Stanford, Le'land (1824-1893), 188. 

"Star Spangled Banner," 46. 

State rights, 96. 

Statue of Liberty, 264. 

Steamboat, first, 52. 

Steam engine, 51. 

Steel manufacture, 246. 

Stephenson, George, 56. 

Stowe (sto), Harriet B. (1812-189G), 

lOI. 

Strike, coal, 232. 
Supreme Court, 12. 

Taft, William H. (1857- ), 231. 

Tariff, 16, 199. 

Taylor, Zachary (1784-1850), 71, 105, 

Telegraph, Morse and the, 60. 

Telephone, 262, 268. 

Tennessee, admitted, 91. 

in Civil War, 149. 

settled, 55. 
Texas, admitted, 71, 92. 

annexed, 70. 

independent, 69. 
Thames (temz), battle of the, 45. 
Thomas, George H. (1816-1870), 149. 
Thompson, W. H., quoted, 156. 
Threshing machine, 61. 
"Times," London, quoted, 41. 
Treaty, 2, 3, 47, 72, 220. 

1783, 2, 3. 

1814, 47. 

1848, 72. 

1898, 220. 
Trent affair, 123. 

Trenton, ovation to Washington at, 14. 
Tripoh, War with, 31. 
Tyler, John (1790-1862), 68. 

" Uncle Tom's Cabin, " loi. 
Underground Railway, loi. 
Union soldier, picture, 140. 
United States, 41. 
Utah, admitted, 191. 



Van Buren, Martin (1782-1862), 68 
Van Dyke, Henry, quoted, 257. 
Ven-e-zue'la ( zwee') dispute, 200. 
Ve'ra Cruz (va'rah kroos'), taken, 72 
Vermont, admitted, 91. 
Vicksburg, 145, 148. 

Wagner, composes march, 260. 
War, Civil, 115. 

of 1812, 37. 

with Mexico, 71, 

with Spain, 207. 
Washington, city, burning of, 45. 

made capital, 16. 
Washington, state, admitted, 191. 
Washington, George (1732-17 99), i, 2. 

and slavery, 93. 

autograph, 15. 

death of,- 19. 

elected President, 13. 

foreign policy, 18. 

inaugurated, 14. 

in Federal Convention, 7. 

in Revolution, 2. 
Watt, James, 51. 
Webster, Daniel (1782-1852), 97= 
Westward movement, 55, 177. 
Wey'ler (wa'ler). General, 205. 
Wheat farms, 253. 
Wheeler, General (1836-1906), 216. 
Whig party, 68, 105. 
Whitney, Eli (1765-1825), 85. 
Whittier, quoted, 94, 260. 
Wilderness, battle in the, 153. 
Wilderness Road, 180. 
Wilkes (wilks), Charles (i 798-1877 j 

123. 
Wilson, Woodrow (1856- ), 232. 
Woman suffrage, 231. 
Wright, Orville (1871- ), 233. 
Wright, Wilbur (1867-1912), 233. 
Wyoming, admitted, 191. 

and woman suffrage, 231. 

X-ray photograph, picture, 275. 
Yukon gold fields, 193. 



AM ERICA FI RST 



By JASPER L. McBRIEN, A. M., School Extension 
Specialist for the United States Bureau of Education, 
Washington, D. C, and formerly State Superintendent of 
Public Instruction of Nebraska. 



TO INSTILL patriotism into the hearts of the rising 
generation is one of the greatest privileges of everv 
school teacher. For it is chiefly to the teachers of 
America that the duty comes of an'ialgamating into one loyal, 
patriotic whole all the children of this country, whether they 
are the offspring of parents who were born here or of 
parents who come from other lands. Material which the 
teacher can definitely work toward this end is necessary and in 
this new book, **America First," this need is adequately met. 
^ The chief feature of the book is an original dramatization 
of the events of the Continental Congress of i 776; in addition, 
there are numerous and famous patriotic speeches and orations, 
songs and poems. All of this material is excellent for use in 
eighth grades and high schools. 

^ Dr. A. E. Winship in the Journal of Eductition, writes of 
this book as follows: **In 'America First,' Mr. McBrien has 
surely made the book of the hour in the true Americanism and 
the lofty patriotism that it teaches. Every student of current 
events must see the imperative need for such instruction. Before 
the American people realized it the European war had erected a 
Tower of Babel in our midst and we found ourselves in a con- 
fusion of tongues on Old-World problems. The purpose of 
this book is to rebaptize all with the love of our own country, 
revise American ideals and make 'America First' the national 
slogan of every man, woman and child under the stars and 
stripes.*** Never was there such an opportune time for the 
universal use, in school and out, of such a book as Mr. 
McBrien' s 'America First.' " 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



(341) 



ESSENTIALS OF ENGLISH 

By HENRY CARR PEARSON, Principal, and MARY 
FREDERIKA KIRCHWEY, Instructor, both of 
Horace Mann School, Teachers College, Columbia 
University. 

TWO BOOKS IN THREE EDITIONS 

FIRST BOOK. For Fourth, Fifth SECOND BOOK. For Seventh 

and Sixth Grades . and Eighth Grades . 

New Terminology Edition New Terminology Edition 

New York State Edition New York State Edition 

THIS series is distinguished by the careful attention paid 
to the little as well as to the big things; the happy com- 
bination of inductive and laboratory methods; and the 
skillful organization and interrelation of the lessons. 

In the First Book prominence is given to both oral and 
written work of a varied character. Extensive use is made of 
selections from hterature, which contain the facts to be taught, 
and serve as models for the pupil to imitate. The principles 
of grammar are presented in their natural relations, and empha- 
sized by ample drill. The picture studies are intended to be 
employed in cultivating the pupil's imagination as well as in 
training his power of observation. 

The Second Book is divided into two parts, — grammar 
and composition, which are designed to be studied together. 
Here also the principles of grammar are developed inductively. 
Practice on correct forms often misused takes the place of exer- 
cises in false syntax. The abundant and varied exercises 
afford training in constructive ability as well as drill on forms. 
The subject of composition is considered in its larger units, 
and accompanied by many practical exercises. The models 
are within the pupil's experience and interest: 

The New Terminology Edition follows the recommenda- 
tions of the **Joint Committee on Grammatical Nomencla- 
ture.*' The New York State Edition meets the requirements 
of the State Education Department, and contains all the selec- 
ions specified for study and memorizing. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 



HUNT'S COMMUNITY 
ARITHMETIC 

By BRENELLE HUNT, Principal of the Training School 
Department, State Normal School, Bridgewater, Mass. 
Price, 



THIS arithmetic is intended as a supplementary book for 
the upper elementary grades and the junior high school. 
For pupils who have become acquainted with the funda- 
mental operations and need to learn how to apply these oper- 
ations in actual life this book offers definite training in the 
economic activities of the average community. It shows the 
pupil how to make practical use in factory, office, store, or 
bank, of the arithmetical principles he has learned. 
^ Each lesson, or series of lessons, deals with a single line of 
everyday work and gives enough practice to secure an intel- 
ligent understanding of that business. The lessons are pre- 
sented from the point of view of the people doing the work 
and reflect actual business conditions. The work of a clerk 
in a grocery store, a meat market, or a dry goods store; prob- 
lems in heating and lighting, the labor and problems involved 
in poultry keeping, carpentry and building and practical 
exercises in household expenses and accounts are some of 
the kinds of work in which the pupil is drilled. 
^ Special attention is given to the subjects that are taken up 
for the first time. At every stage, the pupil's mental equip- 
ment has been duly considered, and the gap between the 
known and the unknown has most carefully been bridged. In 
many cases, guide questions lead the pupil to an understand- 
ing of what he is to do. The numerous line cuts and halt- 
tones also help to clear up any possible difficulties. 
^ This book not only makes for efficiency in the ordinary 
trade operations but it also trains the pupil to be careful in hi-s 
own expenditures and to appreciate the value of accuracy. 



AMERICAN BOOK COMPANY 

1337) 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 




011527 197 • 



